Method for modifying gene expression of a phytopathogenic fungus

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to a system for controlling the development of fungi during a phytopathogenic attack which enables the plant to express a construct for inhibiting the expression of a gene essential to the development or to the pathogenicity of the fungus.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation-in-part application of International Patent Application No. PCT/FR2004/003312, filed on Dec. 20, 2004, published as WO 2005/071091, which claims priority to FR 0315228, filed Dec. 23, 2003, and to FR 0407373, filed Jul. 2, 2004, each of which are incorporated by reference herein in their entireties.

1. INTRODUCTION

The present invention relates to a system for controlling the development of fungi during a phytopathogenic attack. The system according to the invention consists in enabling the plant to express a construct for inhibiting the expression of a gene essential to the development or to the pathogenicity of the fungus. This system is commonly called RNA interference. The plants thus transformed constitute one of the aspects of the present invention.

2. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Plant diseases cause considerable yield losses; this results in economical losses for farmers, but also a large amount of nutritional damage for the local population living off their agriculture. Economically and ecologically, it is very advantageous to have plants resistant to their pathogens, and more particularly to their fungi in the absence of plant-protection products. To date, it has been possible to use various strategies:

-   -   Methods of traditional selection have been used to develop         plants specifically resistant to certain pathogens. However,         these methods are limited to the species that can be crossed and         the introgression of characteristics of resistance to pathogens         constitutes long and laborious work.     -   The use of an antisense RNA makes it possible to decrease the         expression of an endogenous target gene (EP 240 208).     -   The use of a sense gene makes it possible to decrease the         expression of an endogenous target gene; this technology is         called cosuppression (EP 465 572).

The technology used in the context of the present invention is RNA interference or RNAi. RNAi has in particular proved that it is effective when double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) is injected into the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans (Fire et al. 1998, Nature 391: 806-811 and Montgomery et al., 1998, PNAS 95: 15502-15507, WO99/32619).

The expression in an organism of a sequence homologous to the gene of interest capable of inducing the formation of small double-stranded RNA makes it possible, very specifically, to extinguish this gene and to observe the phenotype that results therefrom (Xiao et al., 2003, Plant Mol Biol., 52(5): 957-66). The most striking example that illustrates this ability is that of insects fed with bacteria expressing small double-stranded RNAs corresponding to a gene expressed in the insects, which is thus inhibited (WO 01/37654).

The dsRNA triggers the specific degradation of a homologous RNA only in the region of identity with the dsRNA (Zamore et al., 2000, Cell, 101: 25-33, Tang et al., 2003 Gene Dev., 17(1): 49-63). The dsRNA is an RNA molecule which contains a double-stranded sequence of at least 25 base pairs (bp) including a sense strand and an antisense strand. The dsRNA molecules are also characterized by the very large degree of complementarity between the two complementary RNA strands. The dsRNA is degraded into RNA fragments of 19 to 25 nucleotides (siRNA) and the cleavage sites on the target RNA are evenly spaced apart by 19 to 25 nucleotides. The small siRNAs resulting therefrom exhibit a very high degree of identity with respect to the target RNA; however, mismatches of 3 to 4 nucleotides between the siRNA and the corresponding portion of the target RNA nevertheless make it possible for the system to operate (Tang et al., 2003, Genes Dev., 17:49-63). It has thus been suggested that these fragments of 19 to 25 nucleotides constitute RNA guides for recognition of the target (Zamore et al., 2000, Cell, 101:25-33). These small RNAs have also been detected in extracts prepared from Schneider 2 cells of Drosophila melanogaster which had been transfected with dsRNAs before cell lysis (Hammond et al., 2000, Nature 404: 293-296). The guiding role of the fragments of 19 to 25 nucleotides in the cleavage of the mRNAs is supported by the observation that these fragments of 19 to 25 nucleotides isolated from dsRNA are capable of being involved in the degradation of mRNA (Zamore et al., 2000, Cell, 101:25-33). Sizable homologous RNA molecules also accumulate in plant tissues which undergo the PTGS phenomenon (Post Transcriptional Gene Silencing, Hamilton and Baulcome, 1999, Science 286: 950-952). These small RNAs can regulate gene expression at three different levels:

-   -   transcription (TGS for Transcriptional Gene Silencing),     -   messenger RNA degradation (PTGS for Post Transcriptional Gene         Silencing),     -   translation.

Regulation involving messenger RNA degradation appears to exist in all eukaryotes, whereas regulation at the transcriptional level has only been described in plants, drosophile and C. elegans. As regards the regulation of translation, it has been characterized in C. elegans and drosophile and appears also to exist in mammals (Hannon, 2002, Nature, 418 (6894): 244-51). In the literature, reference is made to RNAi, to PTGS, to cosuppression or to quelling (reserved for fungi) when referring to this phenomenon, depending on the organisms in which it is studied.

The introduction of dsRNA was carried out in plants in order to induce silencing of an endogenous target gene (Hamilton et al., 1998, Plant J, 15: 737-746, WO99/15682), to induce resistance to RNA viruses by means of the use of a transgene expressing a dsRNA having substantial identity with respect to the viral genes (Waterhouse et al., 1998, PNAS 95: 13959-13964, Pandolfini et al., 2003, Biotechnol., 25; 3(1): 7, WO98/36083, WO99/15682, U.S. Pat. No. 5,175,102), but also to induce resistance to nematodes (Chuang and Meyerowitz, 2000, PNAS, 97: 4985-4990, WO01/96584) or alternatively to the bacterium Agrobacterium (WO00/26346, Escobar et al., 2001, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA., 98(23): 13437-13442).

In the case of the attack of a plant by a bacterium or by a virus, the mechanisms of interaction between the plant and the pathogen clearly involve nucleic acid transfers.

In fact, in the case of Agrobacterium tumefaciens, the mechanisms of pathogenicity comprise two steps: the first corresponds to a horizontal gene transfer and to the integration of this or these gene(s) into the plant (this is transformation), the second corresponds to post-integration events that occur in the plant (this is tumorigenesis; Escobar et al., 2001, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA., 98(23): 13437-42) based on the use, by the plant, of the pathogen's genetic material. In the case of the infection of tobacco with the Plum Pox Virus (PPV), it is the transfer into the plant of the single-stranded RNA of the virus which allows the synthesis of the capsid proteins and of the polymerases required for the propagation of the infection (Pandolfini et al., 2003). There is therefore a link and very elaborate exchanges at the genetic level between the plant and its pathogen, and the siRNAs are transferred during its exchanges. The mechanisms of infection of a plant by a phytopathogenic fungus do not, for their part, involve any gene transfer.

3. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

A subject of the present invention is the creation of a construct and the use thereof in plants or cells genetically modified in order to make them resistant to pathogenic fungi. The technology used is based on the mechanism of RNA interference. These plants have the advantage of not producing proteins, and the risks of allergic problems are considerably reduced: the only elements overexpressed being RNAs. Furthermore, the mechanism of interference RNA is an exponential and self-replicating system, which means that it is sufficient to induce it in order for it to be maintained in the organism.

One of the subjects of the present invention concerns a method of producing a plant resistant to a phytopathogenic fungus, comprising the following steps:

-   a) introducing into a plant cell a construct comprising:     -   a promoter regulatory sequence that is functional in plant         cells,     -   a DNA sequence which, when it is transcribed, generates an RNA         molecule comprising at least two sequences: sense and antisense         at least partially complementary, said sense sequence comprising         a sequence essentially homologous to a gene essential to the         fungus or to its phytopathogenicity, said antisense sequence         comprising a sequence essentially homologous to the sequence         complementary to said essential gene,     -   a terminator regulatory sequence, -   b) placing the transformed cells in culture under conditions that     allow the transcription of the construct, -   c) selecting the transformed cells, -   d) regenerating plants from the transformed cells.

Another subject of the present invention concerns a method of producing a plant resistant to a phytopathogenic fungus, comprising the following steps:

-   a) introducing into a plant a construct comprising:     -   a promoter regulatory sequence that is functional in plant         cells,     -   a DNA sequence which, when it is transcribed, generates an RNA         molecule comprising at least two sequences: sense and antisense         at least partially complementary, said sense sequence comprising         a sequence essentially homologous to a gene essential to the         fungus or to its phytopathogenicity, said antisense sequence         comprising a sequence essentially homologous to the sequence         complementary to said essential gene,     -   a terminator regulatory sequence, -   b) placing the transformed plants in culture under conditions that     allow the transcription of the construct, -   c) selecting the transformed plants.

Another subject of the present invention concerns a method of producing a plant cell resistant to a phytopathogenic fungus, comprising the following steps:

-   a) introducing into a plant cell a construct comprising:     -   a promoter regulatory sequence that is functional in plant         cells,     -   a DNA sequence which, when it is transcribed, generates an RNA         molecule comprising at least two sequences: sense and antisense         at least partially complementary, said sense sequence comprising         a sequence essentially homologous to a gene essential to the         fungus or to its phytopathogenicity, said antisense sequence         comprising a sequence essentially homologous to the sequence         complementary to said essential gene,     -   a terminator regulatory sequence, -   b) selecting the transformed cells, -   c) placing the transformed cells in culture under conditions that     allow the transcription of the construct.

The invention also concerns a plant resistant to a phytopathogenic fungus, comprising a construct characterized in that it comprises:

-   -   a promoter regulatory sequence that is functional in plant         cells,     -   a DNA sequence which, when it is transcribed, generates an RNA         molecule comprising at least two sequences: sense and antisense         at least partially complementary, said sense sequence comprising         a sequence essentially homologous to a gene essential to the         fungus or to its phytopathogenicity, said antisense sequence         comprising a sequence essentially homologous to the sequence         complementary to said essential gene,     -   a terminator regulatory sequence.

The plant cells resistant to a phytopathogenic fungus comprising a construct characterized in that it comprises:

-   -   a promoter regulatory sequence that is functional in plant         cells,     -   a DNA sequence which, when it is transcribed, generates an RNA         molecule comprising at least two sequences: sense and antisense         at least partially complementary, said sense sequence comprising         a sequence essentially homologous to a gene essential to the         fungus or to its phytopathogenicity, said antisense sequence         comprising a sequence essentially homologous to the sequence         complementary to said essential gene,     -   a terminator regulatory sequence,         are another subject of the present invention.

Another aspect of the present invention concerns the use of a construct for creating a plant cell or a plant resistant to a fungus, said construct comprising a promoter regulatory sequence that is functional in plant cells, a DNA sequence which, when it is transcribed, generates an RNA molecule comprising at least two sequences: sense and antisense at least partially complementary, said sense sequence comprising a sequence essentially homologous to a gene essential to the fungus or to its phytopathogenicity, said antisense sequence comprising a sequence essentially homologous to the sequence complementary to said essential gene, and a terminator regulatory sequence.

A subject of the invention is also a method for identifying a gene essential to the development or to the pathogenicity of a phytopathogenic fungus, comprising the following steps:

-   a) transforming a plant cell or a plant with a construct comprising:     -   a promoter regulatory sequence that is functional in plant         cells,     -   a DNA sequence which, when it is transcribed, generates an RNA         molecule comprising at least two sequences: sense and antisense         at least partially complementary, said sense sequence comprising         a sequence essentially homologous to a gene supposedly essential         to the fungus or to its phytopathogenicity, said antisense         sequence comprising a sequence essentially homologous to the         sequence complementary to said supposed essential gene,     -   a terminator regulatory sequence, -   b) bringing the cells or the plants thus transformed into contact     with the phytopathogenic fungus, -   c) studying the resulting phenotype, -   d) characterizing the gene corresponding to the sequence of     nucleotides thus inserted.

A method for inhibiting the expression of a fungal gene, comprising the following steps:

-   a) transforming a plant cell or a plant with a construct comprising:     -   a promoter regulatory sequence that is functional in plant         cells,     -   a DNA sequence which, when it is transcribed, generates an RNA         molecule comprising at least two sequences: sense and antisense         at least partially complementary, said sense sequence comprising         a sequence essentially homologous to a gene essential to the         fungus or to its phytopathogenicity, said antisense sequence         comprising a sequence essentially homologous to the sequence         complementary to said essential gene,     -   a terminator regulatory sequence, -   b) selecting, -   c) placing the cells thus transformed in culture under conditions     that allow the transcription of said construct, -   d) bringing the cells into contact with the fungus,     constitutes yet another aspect of the invention.

The invention also concerns a method for reducing the expression of a fungal gene, comprising the following steps:

-   a) transforming a plant cell or a plant with a construct comprising:     -   a promoter regulatory sequence that is functional in plant         cells,     -   a DNA sequence which, when it is transcribed, generates an RNA         molecule comprising at least two sequences: sense and antisense         at least partially complementary, said sense sequence comprising         a sequence essentially homologous to a gene essential to the         fungus or to its phytopathogenicity, said antisense sequence         comprising a sequence essentially homologous to the sequence         complementary to said essential gene,     -   a terminator regulatory sequence, -   b) selecting, -   c) placing the cells thus transformed in culture under conditions     that allow the transcription of said construct, -   d) bringing the cells into contact with the fungus.

4. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1 depicts a promoter regulatory sequence that is functional in plant cells, operably linked to a nucleotide sequence in the sense orientation of a target gene, followed by an intron and by a nucleotide sequence in the antisense orientation of this same gene. A terminator regulatory sequence is at the end of the sense/intron/antisense construct. The sequence cloned in the sense and antisense orientation is that whose expression in the pathogen it is intended to inhibit. The dsRNA product of the construct is processed by dicer to form siRNA, or interfering RNA.

FIG. 2 represents a promoter regulatory sequence that is functional in plant cells, which is in front of the sense sequence of the gene, followed by the partial antisense sequence of this same gene. A terminator regulatory sequence is at the end of the sense/antisense construct. The dsRNA product of the construct is processed by dicer to form siRNA, or interfering RNA.

FIG. 3 shows the position of the Cercospora nicotianae tubulin primers on the DNA and RNA sequences comprising the sense-intron-antisense assembly as defined by the sequence identifier SEQ ID No. 4. The dashed lines represent diagrammatically the primers with which the quantitative PCR (qPCR) is carried out after the reverse transcription (RT).

FIG. 4A-F depicts different types/stages of progression of a fungal infection. (A) Type 1 corresponds to the visualization of very slight, barely perceptible, marks on the leaf. (B) Type 2 corresponds to clear, but very few, marks on the leaf. (C) Type 3 corresponds to clear and numerous marks on the leaf. (D) Type 4 corresponds to very clear and very numerous marks with the presence of large marks. Type 5 corresponds either to complete rotting of the leaf (E), or to numerous very large marks (F).

FIG. 5 represents the intensity of the symptoms noted for each event.

FIG. 6 represents the percentage of contaminated foliar surface for each event.

FIG. 7 presents the intensity of the symptoms noted for each event.

5. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

According to the invention, the term “promoter regulatory sequence” is intended to mean any promoter regulatory sequence of a gene that is naturally expressed in plants, in particular a promoter that is expressed especially in the leaves of plants, for instance promoters referred to as constitutive of bacterial, viral or plant origin, or else promoters referred to as light-dependent, such as that of a plant ribulose-biscarboxylase/oxygenase (RuBisCO) small subunit gene, or any known suitable promoter that can be used. Among the promoters of plant origin, mention will be made of the histone promoters as described in application EP 0 507 698, or the rice actin promoter (U.S. Pat. No. 5,641,876). Among the promoters of a plant virus gene, mention will be made of that of the cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV 19S or 35S) or of the cassava vein mosaic virus (CsVMV: WO97/48819) or the circovirus promoter (AU 689 311). Use may also be made of a promoter regulatory sequence specific for particular regions or tissues of plants, and more particularly seed-specific promoters (Datla, R. et al., 1997, Biotechnology Ann. Rev., 3, 269-296), especially the napin (EP 255 378), phaseolin, glutenin, helianthinin (WO 92/17580), albumin (WO 98/45460) and oleosin (WO 98/45461) promoters. An inducible promoter can also be used, it can be advantageously chosen from the promoters of phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL), of HMG-CoA reductase (HMG), of chitinases, of glucanases, of proteinase inhibitors (PI), of genes of the PR1 family, of nopaline synthase (nos) or of the vspB gene (U.S. Pat. No. 5,670,349), the HMG2 promoter (U.S. Pat. No. 5,670,349), the apple beta-galactosidase (ABG1) promoter or the apple amino cyclopropane carboxylate synthase (ACC synthase) promoter (WO 98/45445).

The term “terminator regulatory sequence” is intended to mean any sequence that is functional in plant cells or plants, also comprising polyadenylation sequences, whether they are of bacterial origin, for instance the nos or ocs terminator of Agrobacterium tumefaciens, of viral origin, for instance the CaMV 35S terminator, or else of plant origin, for instance a histone terminator as described in application EP 0 633 317.

The selection step for identifying the transformed cells and/or plants having integrated the construct according to the invention can be carried out by virtue of the presence of a selectable gene present in the construct according to the invention or in the plasmid used for the transformation of the cells or of the plants and comprising said construct. The selectable gene may be in the form of a chimeric gene comprising the following elements, functionally linked in the direction of transcription: a promoter regulatory sequence that is functional in plant cells, a sequence encoding a selectable marker, and a terminator regulatory sequence that is functional in plant cells.

Among the selectable markers that can be used, mention may be made of markers containing genes for resistance to antibiotics, such as, for example, that of the hygromycin phosphotransferase gene (Gritz et al., 1983, Gene 25: 179-188), of the neomycin phosphotransferase II gene inducing resistance to kanamycin (Wirtz et al., 1987, DNA, 6(3): 245-253), or of the aminoglycoside 3″-adenyltransferase gene, but also markers containing genes for tolerance to herbicides, such as the bar gene (White et al., NAR 18: 1062, 1990) for tolerance to bialaphos, the EPSPS gene (U.S. Pat. No. 5,188,642) for tolerance to glyphosate or else the HPPD gene (WO 96/38567) for tolerance to isoxazoles. Mention may also be made of genes encoding readily indentifiable enzymes, such as the GUS enzyme, or genes encoding pigments or enzymes regulating pigment production in the transformed cells. Such selectable marker genes are in particular described in patent applications WO 91/02071, WO 95/06128, WO 96/38567, and WO 97/04103.

Preferably, the nucleotide sequence of the gene essential to the fungus or to its pathogenicity (target gene) corresponds to a region which is transcribed, and more particularly which is transcribed and translated.

The length of the sense nucleotide sequence has a minimum size of 19 nucleotides.

The sense sequence comprises a sequence essentially homologous to a gene essential to the fungus or to its pathogenicity. In fact, and preferably, the sense nucleotide sequence and the nucleotide sequence of the fungal target gene exhibit a degree of identity of at least 50% to 70%. Entirely preferably, the degree of identity is at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, and entirely preferably, the degree of identity is 100%.

However, it is necessary for the sense nucleotide sequence to always comprise a sequence of approximately 19 nucleotides, particularly of 20 nucleotides, and more particularly of 25 nucleotides, exhibiting at least 80% identity with the corresponding portion of the target gene, at least 85% identity with the corresponding portion of the target gene, at least 90% identity with the corresponding portion of the target gene, at least 95% identity with the corresponding portion of the target gene, and entirely preferably 100% identity.

In one of the aspects of the invention, the sense and antisense sequences have identical sizes. According to another aspect of the invention, the size of the sense sequence is greater than that of the antisense sequence. By way of example, the size of the sense sequence can be about 200 nucleotides greater than the size of the antisense sequence. In another aspect of the invention, the size of the antisense sequence is greater than that of the sense sequence.

The antisense sequence comprises a sequence essentially homologous to the sequence complementary to the gene essential to the fungus or to its pathogenicity. In fact, and preferably, the antisense nucleotide sequence and the sequence complementary to the fungal target gene exhibit a degree of identity of at least 50% to 70%. Entirely preferably, the degree of identity is at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, and entirely preferably, the degree of identity is 100%.

However, it is necessary for the antisense nucleotide sequence to always comprise a sequence of approximately 19 nucleotides, particularly of 20 nucleotides, and more particularly of 25 nucleotides, exhibiting at least 80% identity with the corresponding portion of the target gene, at least 85% identity with the corresponding portion of the target gene, at least 90% identity with the corresponding portion of the target gene, at least 95% identity with the corresponding portion of the target gene, and entirely preferably 100% identity.

Molecular hybridization is a pairing reaction which takes place between complementary strands of polynucleotides exhibiting a certain degree of identity between their nucleotide sequences. The greater the sequence identity between the polynucleotides, the more possible and easier the hybridization between said polynucleotides, and the greater the probability that these polynucleotides encode proteins with equivalent properties.

The degree of identity between two homologous polynucleotides is obtained by comparison of their sequences and is generally expressed by means of a percentage of nucleotides that are identical between these sequences. This degree of identity is measured over a given sequence length, the shortest of the sequences compared determining the length of sequence over which the degree of identity of the homologous sequences is measured. The invention therefore covers polynucleotides exhibiting one or more sequence modifications with respect to the other and being homologous to the gene essential to the fungus or to its pathogenicity.

The DNA sequence according to the invention can have two aspects; in the first, it comprises two nucleotide sequences, which are sense and antisense, separated by an intron that does not exhibit any homology with the fungal gene. FIG. 1 describes a promoter regulatory sequence that is functional in plant cells, which is in front of the nucleotide sequence in the sense orientation of the gene, followed by an intron and by the nucleotide sequence in the antisense orientation of this same gene. A terminator regulatory sequence is at the end of the sense/intron/antisense construct. The sequence cloned in the sense and antisense orientation is that whose expression in the pathogen it is intended to inhibit. The transcription of this DNA sequence (“DNA” in the figure) thus gives a large single-stranded RNA (“mRNA” in the figure) corresponding to the sense/intron/antisense construct. This long RNA transcript can be detected by RT-PCR. Since the sense and antisense sequences are homologous, they will pair, and the intron which separates them plays the role of a loop for folding. A dsRNA is then obtained (“dsRNA” in the figure) over all the homologous regions. The dsRNA is subsequently specifically degraded by an enzymatic complex called “DICER”. The degradation of the dsRNAs then forms siRNAs (“siRNA” in the figure), small double-stranded RNAs having a size of between 19 and 25 bases. These are then the siRNAs which, by pairing with the transcribed RNAs derived from the target gene will lead to their degradation via the plant's enzymatic machinery.

In the second aspect, the DNA sequence comprises two nucleotide sequences, which are sense and antisense, of different sizes, the loop structure corresponding to the part of the nucleotide sequence that does not exhibit any homology with the other nucleotide sequence. FIG. 2 represents a promoter regulatory sequence that is functional in plant cells, which is in front of the sense sequence of the gene, followed by the partial antisense sequence of this same gene. A terminator regulatory sequence is at the end of the sense/antisense construct. The nucleotide sequence cloned in the sense orientation is essentially homologous to the sequence of the target gene whose expression it is intended to inhibit. The antisense nucleotide sequence is essentially homologous to the complementary strand of the sequence of said target gene. The transcription of this DNA sequence (“DNA” in the figure) thus gives a large single-stranded RNA (“mRNA” in the figure) corresponding to the sense/antisense construct (this long RNA transcript can be detected by RT-PCR) The homologous sense/antisense sequences are paired. A dsRNA is then obtained (“dsRNA” in the figure) over all the homologous regions. The dsRNA is subsequently specifically degraded by an enzymatic complex called “DICER”. The degradation of the dsRNAs then forms siRNAs (“siRNA” in the figure), small doubled-stranded RNAs having a size of between 19 and 25 bases. These are then the siRNAs which, by pairing with the target RNAs, will lead to their degradation via the plant's enzymatic machinery.

The nucleotide sequences according to the present invention can be complementary to a gene essential to the fungus or to its pathogenicity.

According to the invention, the expression “gene essential to the fungus” is intended to mean a gene, the inhibition of which by a fungicidal molecule or the mutation thereof leads to the death of the fungus or an arrest of its development. By way of example, mention may be made of the following genes:

-   -   gene encoding beta-tubulin (Katiyar et al., 1994, Antimicrob.         Agents Chemother., 38(9): 2086-90),     -   acetohydroxyacid isomerase (ilv5) involved in the branched-chain         amino acid biosynthetic pathway (WO 03/022056),     -   C14-demethylase (erg11) or C24-methyltransferase (erg6) involved         in the ergosterol synthetic pathway (Barrett and Dixon, 1995,         Acta Biochem. Pol., 42(4): 465-479),     -   inositol phosphoceramide synthase (aur1) involved in the         transfer of inositol phosphoceramide onto ceramide in the         sphingolipid biosynthetic pathway (Nagiec et al., 1997, J. Biol.         Chem., 272(15): 9809-9817) and inositol phosphoryltransferase         (ipt1),     -   glucan synthase and chitin synthase (Kang et al., 2001, Pest.         Mana. Sci., 57(6): 491-500, Binks et al., 1993, J. Gen.         Microbiol., 139(6): 1371-1377),     -   ribosomal factors (ef2 and ef3, Belfiel and Tuite, 1993, Mol.         Microbiol., 9(3): 411-418),     -   met4 and met30 (Aoki et al., 1996, Antimicrob. Agents Chemother,         40(1): 127-132).

Additional examples of genes encompassed by the expression “gene essential to the fungus” can be found in Table 1.

In one embodiment of the invention, the plants or plant cells comprise a complementary DNA sequence of a gene essential to the fungus, said essential gene being represented by the sequence identifier SEQ ID No. 4.

The invention also relates to a method of producing a tobacco cell resistant to the fungus Cercospora nicotianae, by introducing a construct comprising a DNA sequence represented by the sequence identifier SEQ ID No. 4.

According to the invention, the expression “gene essential to the pathogenicity of the fungus” is intended to mean a gene, the inhibition of which is not lethal for the fungus but inhibits its pathogenic capacity. By way of example, mention may be made of the following genes:

-   -   763 of Magnaporthe grisea (WO 01/75115),     -   gene encoding polygalacturonase (Bonnin et al., 2001, Biochem.         Biophys. Acta, 1526(3): 301-309),     -   tri5 of Fusarium graminearum, involved in the trichothecene         biosynthetic pathway (Kimura et al., 2003, FEBS, 539(1-3):         105-110),     -   fum5 of Fusarium monoliforme, involved in the biosynthetic         pathway for toxins of this fungus (Proctor et al., 1999, Fungal         Genet. Biol., 27(1): 100-112, Proctor et al., 2003, Fungal         Genet. Biol., 38(2): 237-249),     -   b{dot over (u)}f of Magnoporthe grisea, involved in the melanin         biosynthetic pathway (Kawamura et al., 1997, Mol. Plant Microbe         Interact, 10(4): 446-453).

In another embodiment of the invention, the plants or plant cells comprise a complementary DNA sequence of a gene essential to the pathogenicity of the fungus, said gene being represented by the sequence identifier SEQ ID No. 13.

The methods of the present invention may be utilized to target genes in a wide variety of fungi that infect plants. Plants which can be afflicted by fungal disease include, but are not limited to: African Daisy (Gerbera jamesonii H. Bolus ex J. D. Hook), African Violet (Saintpaulia ionantha Wendl.), Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.), Almond (Prunus dulcis (Mill.) Webb), Anemone (Anemone coronaria L.), Apple (Malus×domestica Borkh.), Apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.), Asparagus (Asparagus officinalis), Avocado (Persea americana Miller), Azalea (Rhododendron spp.), Banana and Plantain (Musa spp.), Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.)

Beet (Beta vulgaris L.), Bellflower (Campanula carpatica Jacq.), Black Walnut (Juglans nigra L.), Bleeding Heart (Clerodendrum thomsoniae Balf.), Butterfly Flower, Poorman's Orchid (Schizanthus×wisetonensis hort.), Cacao (Theobroma cacao L.), Caneberries (Rubus spp.), Carnation (Dianthus caryophylium L.), Carrot (Daucus carota L. subsp. sativus (Hoffm.) (Arcang.), Cassava (Manihot esulenta Crantz), Cattleya Lindl. spp., Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.), Cineraria (Pericallis×hybrida R. Nordenstam [Senecio×hybridus (Willd.) Regel], Citrus (Citrus spp.), Coconut Palm (Cocos nucifera L.), Coffee (Coffea arabica L., Coffea canephora Pierre ex Froehner), Corn or Maize (Zea mays L.), Cotton (Gossypium spp.), Crucifers (Brassica and Raphanus spp.), Cucurbits (Citrullus spp., Cucumis spp., Cucurbita spp., and others), Cyclamen (Cyclamen persicum Mill.), Dahlia (Dahlia sp.), Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziezii [Mirb.] Franco), Elm (Ulmus spp.), English (Persian) Walnut (Juglans regia L.), Flax (Linum usitatissimum L. and other Linum spp.), Foliage Plants (House plants), Fuchsia (Fuchsia×hybrida Hort. ex Vilm), Geranium (Pelargonium), Grape (Vitis spp.), Hazelnut (Corylus avellana L. & Corylus spp.), Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.), Holiday Cacti (Schlumbergera truncata (Haw.) Moran), Hop (Humulus lupulus L.), Hydrangea (Hydrangea macrophylla) (Thunb.) Ser., Impatiens (Impatiens wallerana) and New Guinea impatiens (Impatiens hybrids), Jerusalem Cherry (Solanum pseudocapsicum L.), Kalanchoë (Kalanchoë blossfeldiana Poelln.), Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.), Lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.), Lisianthus (Eustoma grandiflorum (Raf.) Shinn), Mango (Mangifera indica L.), Mimulus, Monkey-Flower (Mimulus×hybridus hort. ex Siebert & Voss), Mint (Mentha piperita L., M. cardiaca Baker, M. spicata L. and M. arvensis L.), Mustard (Brassica juncea (L.) Czernj. & J. M. Coulter var. crispifolia L. H. Bailey and B. nigra (L.) W. Koch), Oats (Avena sativa L.), Papaya (Carica papaya L.), Pea (Pisum sativum L.), Peach and Nectarine (Peach: Prunus persica (L.) Batsch; Nectarine: P. persica var. nucipersica (Suckow) C. K. Schneid.), Peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.), Pear (Pyrus communis L.), Pearl Millet (Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.), Pecan (Carya illinoinensis (Wang.) Koch.), Pepper (Capsicum spp.), Persian Violet (Exacum affine), Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.), Pineapple (Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.), Pistachio (Pistacia vera L.), Pocketbook Plant (Calceolaria crenatiflora Cav.), Poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima Willd. ex Klotzsch), Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.), Primulas: English primrose Primula vulgaris Huds. (P. acaulis), Polyanthus Primula Pruhonicensis hybrids, Fairy primrose P. malacoides Franch., German primrose P. obconica Hance, Chinese primrose P. sinensis Sabine ex Lindl., Rapeseed=Canola (B. napus L. and Brassica rapa L. (=B. campestris L.)), Red Clover (Trifolium pratense L.), Rhododendron (Rhododendron spp.), Rice (Oryza sativa L.), Rose (Rosa spp.), Rye (Secale cereale L.), Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.), Sapphire Flower (Browallia speciosa Hook.), Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench), Soybeans (Glycine max (L.) Merrill), Spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.), Strawberry (Fragaria×ananassa Duch.), Sugarcane (Saccharum spp. hybrids), Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) and Jerusalem Artichoke (H. tuberosus L.), Sweetgum (Liquidambar spp.), Sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.), Sycamore (Platanus spp.), Tea (Camellia sinesis (L.) 0. Kuntze), Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.), Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.), Verbena (Verbena×hybrida Groenl. & Ruempl.), Wheat (Triticum spp. L.), Wild Rice, Cultivated (Zizania palustris L.). Table 2 provides a list of common diseases which infect various types of plants, as well as identified sources of the disease. The prior list and Table 2 were compiled from data found at the International Society for Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions (http://www.ismpminet.org/resources/common/toc.asp).

Based upon the methods disclosed herein, a person of ordinary skill in the art will be capable of utilizing the methods described above to target specific genes essential to a fungus or its pathogenicity in the fungus responsible for a particular fungal diseases outlined in Table 2. For example, the beta-tubulin gene of a fungus described in Table 2 may be targeted. A person of ordinary skill in the art will also be capable of utilizing analogous methods to treat fungal diseases for the plants listed herein.

The invention also relates to a method of producing a rice cell resistant to the fungus Magnoporthe grisea, by introducing a construct comprising a DNA sequence represented by the sequence identifier SEQ ID No. 13.

The plants and the cells transformed according to the invention can be monocotyledons or dicotyledons. Preferably, these plants are plants of agronomic interest.

The plant cells and the plants of the present invention can be monocotyledons such as wheat, maize or rice.

A particular embodiment of the present invention corresponds to a rice plant resistant to Magnaporthe grisea, comprising a DNA sequence represented by the sequence identifier SEQ ID No. 13.

The plant cells and the plants of the present invention can be dicotyledons such as rapeseed, soybean, cotton or tobacco.

A particular embodiment of the present invention corresponds to a tobacco plant resistant to Cercospora nicotianae, comprising a DNA sequence represented by the sequence identifier SEQ ID No. 4.

Said plant can be obtained by regeneration of the transformed cells according to the invention.

To obtain the cells or plants according to the invention, those skilled in the art can use one of the numerous known methods of transformation.

One of these methods consists in bringing the cells or tissues of the host organisms to be transformed into contact with polyethylene glycol (PEG) and the vectors of the invention (Chang and Cohen, 1979, Mol. Gen. Genet. 168(1), 111-115; Mercenier and Chassy, 1988, Biochimie 70(4), 503-517). Electroporation is another method, which consists in subjecting the cells or tissues to be transformed and the vectors of the invention to an electric field (Andreason and Evans, 1988, Biotechniques 6(7), 650-660; Shigekawa and Dower, 1989, Aust. J. Biotechnol. 3(1), 56-62). Another method consists in directly injecting the vectors into the cells or the tissues by microinjection (Gordon and Ruddle, 1985, Gene 33(2), 121-136). Advantageously, the “biolistic” method may be used. It consists in bombarding cells or tissues with particles onto which the vectors of the invention are adsorbed (Bruce et al., 1989, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86(24), 9692-9696; Klein et al., 1992, Biotechnology 10(3), 286-291; U.S. Pat. No. 4,945,050). Preferably, the transformation of plant cells or tissues can be carried out using bacteria of the Agrobacterium genus, preferably by infection of the cells or tissues of said plants with A. tumefaciens (Knopf, 1979, Subcell. Biochem. 6, 143-173; Shaw et al., 1983, Gene 23(3): 315-330) or A. rhizogenes (Bevan and Chilton, 1982, Annu. Rev. Genet. 16: 357-384; Tepfer and Casse-Delbart, 1987, Microbiol. Sci. 4(1), 24-28). Preferably, the transformation of plant cells or tissues with Agrobacterium tumefaciens is carried out according to the protocol described by Hiei et al., (1994, Plant J. 6(2): 271-282). Those skilled in the art will choose the appropriate method according to the nature of the host organisms to be transformed.

The plants according to the invention contain transformed plant cells as defined above. In particular, the transformed plants can be obtained by regeneration of the transformed plant cells described above. The regeneration is obtained by any appropriate method, which depends on the nature of the species.

The invention also comprises parts of these plants, and the progeny of these plants. The term “part of these plants” is intended to mean any organ of these plants, whether above ground or below ground. The organs above ground are the stems, the leaves and the flowers comprising the male and female reproductive organs. The organs below ground are mainly the roots, but they may also be tubers. The term “progeny” is intended to mean mainly the seeds containing the embryos derived from the reproduction of these plants with one another. By extension, the term “progeny” applies to all the seeds formed at each new generation derived from crosses between the transformed plants according to the invention. Progeny and seeds can also be obtained by vegetative multiplication of said transformed plants. The seeds according to the invention can be coated with an agrochemical composition comprising at least one active product having an activity selected from fungicidal, herbicidal, insecticidal, nematicidal, bactericidal or virucidal activities.

The various aspects of the invention will be understood more fully by means of the experimental examples below.

All the methods or operations described below are given by way of example and correspond to a choice, made among the various methods available for achieving the same result. This choice has no effect on the quality of the result, and, consequently, any appropriate method can be used by those skilled in the art to achieve the same result. In particular, and unless otherwise specified in the examples, all the recombinant DNA techniques employed are carried out according to the standard protocols described in Sambrook and Russel (2001, Molecular cloning: A laboratory manual, Third edition, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, NY) in Ausubel et al. (1994, Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, Current protocols, USA, Volumes 1 and 2), and in Brown (1998, Molecular Biology LabFax, Second edition, Academic Press, UK). Standard materials and methods for plant molecular biology are described in Croy R.D.D. (1993, Plant Molecular Biology LabFax, BIOS Scientific Publications Ltd (UK) and Blackwell Scientific Publications (UK)). Standard materials and methods for PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) are also described in Dieffenbach and Dveksler (1995, PCR Primer: A laboratory manual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, NY) and in McPherson et al. (2000, PCR—Basics: From background to bench, First edition, Springer Verlag, Germany).

EXAMPLES Example 1 Creation of a Tobacco Plant resistant to Cercospora nicotianae

Cercospora nicotianae is a pathogen of tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum). The target gene chosen in Cercospora nicotianae is the gene encoding beta-tubulin. Tubules are dynamic structures present in all cell types. In cells which have the ability to divide, the microtubules form the basis of the formation of the mitotic spindle; for the other cell types, they constitute a cytoplasmic network essential for the organization of the nucleus and of the organelles in the cytoplasmic space. Microtubules are heterodimers of alpha- and beta-tubulin. Beta-tubulin is a protein that is essential for the pathogen and is in particular the target for benzimidazoles (Katiyar et al., 1994, Antimicrob. Agents Chemother, 38(9): 2086-2090).

1.—Construct used to Transform Tobacco Cells

The construct used to transform tobacco is the plasmid called pPAF 115; it comprises the following selectable markers: a gene for resistance to kanamycin under the control of the nos promoter, a gene for resistance to spectinomycin (aadA) under the control of a bacterial promoter. The CaMV 35S promoter allows transcription of the DNA sequence comprising part of the sense sequence of Cercospora nicotianae beta-tubulin, represented by the sequence identifier SEQ ID No. 1, itself followed by an intron represented by the sequence identifier SEQ ID No. 2 and by the antisense sequence of this same beta-tubulin, represented by the sequence identifier SEQ ID No. 3. An ocs terminator is downstream of the sense-intron-antisense assembly. This assembly is represented by the sequence identifier SEQ ID No. 4.

The Nicotiana tabacum variety Petit Havana is transformed with this vector pPAF 115.

2.—Transformation of Tobacco Foliar Tissues Using the Solution of Agrobacterium Transformed with the plasmid pPAF115

The solution of Agrobacterium (OD=1) is washed in 10 mM MgSO₄. Disks are cut out of wild-type tobacco leaves and are disinfected for 10 min in 75% ethanol and then incubated for 5 min in the solution of Agrobacterium. They are then sponged, and placed with the lower face against a Petri dish containing MS 0.05-2 agar (Murashige & Skoog M5519, 30 g/l sucrose, 0.05 ppm ANA, 2 ppm BAP, 7 g/l phytagar, pH=5.7) for a culture of three days. The foliar disks are transferred onto MS 0.05-2 dishes in the presence of spectinomycin and kanamycin for two to four weeks. The foliar disks are then placed on MS 0-0 medium (Murashige & Skoog M5519, 30 g/l sucrose, 7 g/l phytagar, pH =5.7) also containing the antibiotics for seven to ten days. The tobacco shoots derived from the disks are isolated and rooted on MS ½-½ agar dishes (½ Murashige & Skoog, 15 g/l sucrose, 7 g/l phytagar, pH=5.7) containing the antibiotics. Once the first two leaves have appeared, the shoots are placed in earth in order for the plants to develop.

3.—Molecular Analyses Carried out on the Transgenic Tobacco

Three different events were obtained.

3.1.—PCR

First PCR experiments are carried out on the genomic DNA of the various events in order to determine whether the latter contain the construct according to the invention. Primers for detecting the kanamycin gene and also the Cercospora-specific tubulin were used. Event 14 15 19 WT Kanamycin + + + − Tubulin + + + − WT: wild-type, nontransformed plant.

The sequences of the primers used are as follows:

Kanamycin: direct: 5′-CAA GAC CGA CCT GTC C-3′ (SEQ ID No. 5) inverse: 5′-CCA TCC GAG TAC GTG C-3′ (SEQ ID No. 6)

Cercospora nicotianae tubulin: direct: 5′-ATC GAT AAC GAG GCC C-3′ (SEQ ID No. 7) inverse: 5′-ACA TCG TAA GTC CTC GG-3′ (SEQ ID No. 8)

All the plants contain the plasmid pPAF115 according to the invention.

3.2.—Quantitative RT-PCR

The RNA of the events obtained is extracted and a reverse transcription is carried out before performing a quantitative PCR. The reverse transcription is carried out from 4 μg of RNA using random primers. The quantitative PCR is carried out according to this scheme: cDNA 100 ng tobacco tubulin cDNA 100 ng Cercospora tubulin cDNA 10 ng tobacco tubulin cDNA 10 ng Cercospora tubulin RNA 100 ng tobacco tubulin RNA 100 ng Cercospora tubulin RNA 10 ng tobacco tubulin RNA 10 ng Cercospora tubulin

The RNA is used to carry out the PCR reaction in order to ensure that the detection of DNA obtained with the cDNA is indeed due to an amplification of complementary DNA and not of contaminating genomic DNA (the amplification from the RNA must be zero).

The detection of the tobacco tubulin complementary DNA by virtue of the use of the primers mentioned below (SEQ ID No. 9 and SEQ ID No. 10) serves as a reference expression level. The level of expression of the transgene was calculated relative to this expression of tobacco tubulin.

Tobacco tubulin direct 5′-GAA AAC ACG TCC CTC G-3′ (SEQ ID No. 9) inverse 5′-TCT TGC CGT AGT CCA C-3′ (SEQ ID No. 10)

For all the experiments:

-   -   The RNA controls are negative, there is therefore no         contamination with genomic DNA.     -   The difference in expression between the concentrations of 100         and 10 ng is constant and in accordance with expectations for         10-fold dilutions.

FIG. 3 shows the position of the Cercospora nicotianae tubulin primers on the DNA and RNA sequences comprising the sense-intron-antisense assembly as defined by the sequence identifier SEQ ID No. 4. The dashed lines represent diagrammatically the primers with which the quantitative PCR (qPCR) is carried out after the reverse transcription (RT).

The qPCR can detect the transcripts derived from the construct according to the invention only if they are not degraded. The RT-qPCR detects only the long transcripts, mRNA or dsRNA. Level of detection (quantitative Event RT-PCR) Results WT −−− No PCR detection of the construct No detection of RNA of the construct 14, 15 +/− Positive but weak PCR detection of the construct Weak detection of RNA of the construct 19 + Positive PCR detection of the construct Clear detection of RNA of the construct “+” signifies that the signal is clearly detected by RT-qPCR “+/−” signifies that the signal is weakly detected “−−−” corresponds to the absence of the transgene 3.3.—Quantitative RT-PCR in View of the In Vivo Tests

The in vivo tests are carried out on the T0 plants described above. This involves the events: 14, 15, 19 and WT. For these 4 events, clones derived from the initial T0 plant will therefore be used to carry out the tests. These clones are produced by cutting out from the leaves of each event, cultured again in vitro and regenerated (see above). In order to carry out a rapid control, a quantitative RT-PCR analysis is carried out on one clone of the events 14, 19 and WT (14A, 19A and WT, respectively).

All the controls (RNA, WT, and internal reference (tobacco tubulin)) are correct. Following validation of the controls, a level of expression can be given for each clone: the results are expressed qualitatively as a function of the values obtained by virtue of the quantitative PCR. Level of expression (quantitative Event RT-PCR) Results WT −−− No PCR detection of the construct No detection of RNA of the construct 14A +/− Positive but weak PCR detection of the construct Weak detection of RNA of the construct 19A + Positive PCR detection of the construct Clear detection of RNA of the construct “+” signifies that the signal is clearly detected by RT-qPCR “+/−” signifies that the signal is weakly detected “−−−” corresponds to the absence of the transgene 4.—Pathological Tests In Vivo for Evaluating the Resistance of the Transgenic Tobacco Plants to Infection with Cercospora nicotianae Plant material:

Clones (at least nine) derived from the T0 events at a developmental stage of the plants comprising at least 5 developed leaves.

Production: S2 glass (25° C. daytime/20° C. night time; 60% RH; photoperiod 15 H of light).

Inoculum:

Suspension of Cercospora nicotianae (approximately 10⁴spores/ml)

Evaluation of Symptoms:

The intensity of the symptoms is determined according to biological criteria as a function of the size and of the appearance of the lesions observed on the leaves. Thus, as can be seen in FIG. 4, the mark 1 corresponds to the visualization of very slight, barely perceptible, marks on the leaf. The mark 2 corresponds to clear, but very few, marks on the leaf. The mark 3 corresponds to clear and numerous marks on the leaf. The mark 4 corresponds to very clear and very numerous marks with the presence of large marks. The mark 5 corresponds either to complete rotting of the leaf, or to numerous very large marks. The differences between 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 therefore correspond to real and clear differences in symptoms. Thus, plants having symptom marks of 4 or 5 are considered to be very severely affected. Plants with a mark of 3 are affected but remain acceptable. Plants with a mark of 2 are weakly affected and those with a mark of 1 are only very weakly affected.

There are, moreover, three different readings:

-   -   1st reading: 10 days after inoculation     -   2nd reading: 21 days after inoculation     -   3rd reading: 1 month after inoculation

Furthermore, the determination of the percentage contamination of the foliar surface ranges from 0% to 100%. 0% corresponds to an observation where no symptom is visible on the leaf, there appears to be a complete absence of the pathogen. 100% corresponds to a leaf completely covered by the pathogen, i.e. a brown and rotten leaf. Since the result of the reading was obtained with the average of the leaves of the same plant, values that are so extreme cannot be obtained. It can thus be considered that, above 30% of foliar surface which is contaminated, the plant is very severely affected by the disease. Below 20%, the contamination can be judged to be weak and below 10-15% as very weak.

The results are presented in the form of histograms corresponding to the means of the plants per event (results at 28 days after infection). The confidence interval is represented for each histogram.

For each event, the number of plants analyzed is indicated below along with the corresponding number of leaves:

-   -   WT: 19 plants (87 leaves)     -   event 14: 14 plants (67 leaves)     -   event 15: 21 plants (102 leaves)     -   event 19: 12 plants (60 leaves).

FIG. 5 represents the intensity of the symptoms noted for each event.

FIG. 6 represents the percentage of contaminated foliar surface for each event.

The results of the in vivo test are clearly correlated with the molecular analyses: the detection of the long transcripts derived from the construct according to the invention is completely correlated with a weaker intensity of the symptoms and therefore resistance of the transgenic plant. Pathological tests on T0 tobacco plants Results at 28 days after infection % of contaminated RT-qPCR foliar Intensity Presence Detection surface of symptoms of the of long (confidence (confidence Event transgene RNAs interval) interval) WT No −−− 37% (6.6) 4 (0.26) 14 Yes −/+ 11% (3.8) 2 (0.37) 15 Yes −/+  17% (3.85) 3 (0.22) 19 Yes + 19% (4.8) 3.2 (0.34)   −/+: weak detection +: clear detection −−−: no detection

The results presented below are established using statistically validated tests for biological assays. The population of each event makes it possible to establish statistically robust confidence intervals.

Example 2 Creation of a Rice Resistant to Magnaporthe grisea

Magnaporthe grisea is a pathogen of rice (Oryza sativa). The chosen target in Magnaporthe grisea is the buf gene.

The buf gene is a gene essential to the pathogenicity of Magnaporthe grisea. In the case of deletion, Magnaporthe grisea is non-virulent and cannot contaminate rice (Kawamura et al., 1997, Mol. Plant Microb. Interact., 20 10(4): 446-53).

1.—Construct Used to Transform Rice Cells

The construct used to transform rice is the plasmid called pPAF 74; it comprises the following selectable marker: a gene for resistance to gentamycin under the control of a bacterial promoter. The CaMV 35S promoter allows transcription of the DNA sequence comprising part of the sense sequence of the buf gene, represented by the sequence identifier SEQ ID No. 11, itself followed by the antisense sequence of this same buf gene which is partially deleted compared with the sense sequence, represented by the sequence identifier SEQ ID No. 12. A Nos terminator is downstream of the sense-antisense assembly which is represented by the sequence identifier SEQ ID No. 13. The Oryza sativa variety Nippon Bare is transformed with this vector pPAF 74.

2.—Transformation of Rice Tissues with the Solution of Agrobacterium Transformed with the Plasmid pPAF 74

The embryos are removed from the pericarp and are immersed in a solution of 70% ethanol for 1 min. They are then placed in one third-diluted commercial bleach for 30 min and stirred from time to time. Finally, they are rinsed 3 times with sterile water.

The embryos thus decontaminated are placed on the side (12 per dish), on NB medium (macroelements N6, FeEDTA, microelements B5, vitamins B5, myoinositol, proline glutamine, casein hydrolysate, sucrose, 2,4-D, phytagel). The dish is left half-open under the hood so as to dry the seed well (incubator at 28° C.—in the dark—17 to 20 days). After a period of 17 to 20 days (28° C.—in the dark), the small embryogenic units (nodules of diameter from 0.5 to 1 mm) which form from the primary callus, in contact with the medium, are excised and subcultured on NB medium in a 100×15 dish (incubator at 280° C.—in the dark—10 days).

A culture of Agrobacteria (3−5×10⁹ bacteria/ml (OD₆₀₀=1)) is used for the transformation.

An inoculation and a coculture must then be performed: Calluses of 3 to 5 mm, that are nicely round, rough, whitish and opaque, are immersed in the solution of agrobacteria containing the plasmid pPAF 74 (3−5×10⁹ bacteria/ml) (20 ml per dish) for 15 min with slight stirring.

The calluses are transferred onto sterile Whatman paper and are dried. The calluses are then placed in culture on R2-CS medium (macroelements R2-I, macroelements R2-II, FeEDTA, microelements R2, vitamins R2, glucose, 2,4-D, type I agarose) in the dark, at a temperature of 25° C., for 3 days (10 calluses per dish).

The calluses are transferred onto R2S selection medium (macroelements R2-I, macroelements R2-II, FeEDTA, microelements R2, vitamins R2, sucrose, 2,4-D, type I agarose, vancomycin, cefotaxime, hygromycin) (280° C.—in the dark—2 weeks). The calluses are subcultured on NBS medium (macroelements N6, FeEDTA, microelements B5, vitamins B5, myoinositol, proline, glutamine, casein hydrolysate, sucrose, 2,4-D, type I agarose, cefotaxime, vancomycin, hygromycin) (280° C.—in the dark—1 week). The proliferations (globules) are spread out around their callus of origin, so as to bring them into contact with the selection medium (280° C.—in the dark—1 to 2 weeks).

The transformants must then enter into maturation:

The resistant proliferations are subcultured (well-developed globules, yellow-white in color) on PR-AG medium (macroelements N6, FeEDTA, microelements B5, vitamins B5, myoinositol, proline, glutamine, casein hydrolysate, sucrose, ABA, BAP, ANA, type I agarose, cefotaxime, hygromycin, vancomycin), identifying the callus of origin (10 calluses per dish) (280° C.—in the dark—8 days).

Regeneration of the transformants:

The calluses are subcultured on RN regeneration medium (macroelements N6, FeEDTA, microelements B5, vitamins B5, myoinositol, proline, glutamine, casein hydrolysate, sucrose, BAP, ANA, phytagel) (28° C.—continuous light—3 weeks).

The regenerated plants are subcultured in a tube (MS medium, sucrose, phytagel).

They are subsequently subcultured in compost, acclimatized, and cultivated under glass.

Acclimatation of the transformed plants:

The plantlets are acclimatized when they have become well developed in the tube (after approximately 3-4 weeks). The plantlet is removed from the tube. The roots are passed under a trickle of water in order to remove the agar. The end of the leaves and of the roots is cut. The dead leaves are removed. The plantlet is placed in a pot, in a small glasshouse (“small greenhouse”) containing 1-2 cm of water or none at all in order to avoid rotting, with the door closed. The top of the small glasshouse is protected with absorbent paper. The assembly is placed in an in vitro culture chamber. The door is gradually half opened and the paper is removed. When the roots emerge from the pot (after approximately 15 days), the plants are planted out in compost, in a pot. Eight different events were obtained.

3.—Molecular Analyses Carried out on the Transgenic Rice

3.1.—PCR

First PCR experiments are carried out on the genomic DNA of the various events in order to determine whether the latter contain the construct according to the invention. Primers for detecting the Magnaporthe buf gene were used. Event M L F WT buf + + + − WT: wild-type, nontransformed plant.

The sequences of primers used are as follows:

Magnaporthe buf: Direct: 5′-TGA CCG TGT CTT TAC CA-3′ (SEQ ID No. 16) Indirect: 5′-AGC AAC CAC ATT AAC AGT-3′ (SEQ ID No. 17)

All the plants contain the plasmid according to the invention.

3.2. Quantitative RT-PCR:

The RNA of these 4 events is extracted and a reverse transcription is carried out before performing a quantitative PCR. The reverse transcription is carried out from 4 μg of RNA using random primers. The quantitative PCR is carried out according to this scheme: cDNA 100 ng rice tubulin cDNA 100 ng Magnaporthe buf cDNA 10 ng rice tubulin cDNA 10 ng Magnaporthe buf RNA 100 ng rice tubulin RNA 100 ng Magnaporthe buf RNA 10 ng rice tubulin RNA 10 ng Magnaporthe buf

The RNA is used to carry out the PCR reaction in order to ensure that the detection of DNA obtained with the DNA is indeed due to an amplification of complementary DNA and not of contaminating genomic DNA (the amplification from the RNA must be zero).

The detection of tobacco tubulin complementary DNA serves as a reference expression level. The level of expression of the transgene was calculated relative to this expression of tobacco tubulin.

The sequences of primers are as follows: Rice tubulin: Direct: 5′-CAT TGA CTT CAC GCG G-3′ (SEQ ID No. 14) Indirect: 5′-GAC ACT GGA TTT GAC GTT-3′ (SEQ ID No. 15) Magnaporthe buf: Direct: 5′-TGA CCG TGT CTT TAC CA-3′ (SEQ ID No. 16) Indirect: 5′-AGC AAC CAC ATT AAC AGT-3′. (SEQ ID No. 17)

For all the experiments:

-   -   The RNA controls are negative, there is therefore no         contamination with genomic DNA.

The difference in expression between the concentrations of 100 and 10 ng is constant and in accordance with expectations for 10-fold dilutions. Expression level (quantitative Event RT-PCR) Results WT −−− No PCR detection of the construct No detection of RNA corresponding to the buf gene M +/− PCR detection of the construct Weak detection of RNA corresponding to the buf construct L + PCR detection of the construct Clear detection of RNA corresponding to the buf construct F ++ PCR detection of the construct Very clear detection of RNA corresponding to the buf construct “+” signifies that the signal is detected by RT-qPCR “−−−” corresponds to the absence of the transgene “++” signifies that the signal is strongly detected by RT-qPCR. 4.—Pathological Tests In Vivo for Evaluating the Resistance of the Transgenic Rice Plants to Infection with Magnaporthe grisea Plant Material:

T0 events at a developmental stage of the plants comprising at least 5 developed leaves.

Production: S2 glass

Inoculum:

Suspension of Magnaporthe grisea (10⁴ spores/ml).

Evaluation of Symptoms:

The intensity of the symptoms is determined according to biological criteria as a function of the size and the appearance of the lesions observed on the leaves. Thus, the mark 1 corresponds to the visualization of very slight, barely perceptible, marks on the leaf. The mark 2 corresponds to clear, but very few, marks on the leaf. The mark 3 corresponds to clear and numerous marks on the leaf. The mark 4 corresponds to very clear and very numerous marks with the presence of large marks. The mark 5 corresponds either to complete rotting of the leaf, or to numerous very large marks. The mark 6 corresponds to a plant 100% affected by the disease.

The differences between 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 therefore correspond to real and clear differences in symptoms. Thus, plants having symptom marks of 6 are dead, the plants 4 or 5 are considered to be very severely affected. Plants with a mark of 3 are affected but remain acceptable. Plants with a mark of 2 are weakly affected and those with a mark of 1 are only very weakly affected. The results are presented in the form of histograms corresponding to the means of the plants per event. The confidence interval is represented for each histogram. FIG. 7 presents the intensity of the symptoms noted for each event.

The results of the in vivo test are clearly correlated with the molecular analyses: the detection of the long transcripts derived from our construct is completely correlated with a weaker intensity of the symptoms and therefore resistance of the transgenic plant. Intensity of RT-qPCR: the symptoms Presence of detection of 15 days the the long after Event transgene RNAs infection WT No −−− 5-6 M Yes −/+ 1 L Yes + 2-3 F Yes ++ 2-3 −/+: weak detection +: detection ++: strong detection −−−: no detection

TABLE 1 DQ026402 Mycosphaerella arachidis strain 255 beta-tubulin gene, partial cds DQ026347 Mycosphaerella coffeicola strain 172 beta-tubulin gene, exon 8 and partial cds DQ026336 Cercospora beticola strain 21 beta-tubulin gene, exon 8 and partial cds AY856374 Cercospora beticola isolate AD-762 beta-tubulin (TUB1) gene, complete cds AY856373 Cercospora beticola isolate C-3 beta-tubulin (TUB1) gene, complete cds AY373578 Cercospora kikuchii isolate DLS5012-1A beta-tubulin gene, partial cds AY373577 Cercospora kikuchii isolate DLL6013-1B beta-tubulin gene, partial cds AF146117 Cercospora piaropi strain 2619 beta-tubulin (tub) gene, partial cds AF146116 Cercospora beticola strain Cb beta-tubulin (tub) gene, partial cds AF146115 Cercospora piaropi strain TX20 beta-tubulin (tub) gene, partial cds AF146114 Cercospora piaropi strain TX15 beta-tubulin (tub) gene, partial cds AF146113 Cercospora piaropi strain TX18 beta-tubulin (tub) gene, partial cds AF146112 Cercospora piaropi strain 62-4 beta-tubulin (tub) gene, partial cds AF146111 Cercospora piaropi strain WHK beta-tubulin (tub) gene, partial cds AF146110 Cercospora piaropi strain I75-102 beta-tubulin-like (tub) gene, partial sequence AF146109 Cercospora piaropi strain 62-2 beta-tubulin (tub) gene, partial cds AF146108 Cercospora piaropi strain 400 beta-tubulin (tub) gene, partial cds AF146107 Cercospora piaropi strain 34 beta-tubulin (tub) gene, partial cds AF146106 Cercospora piaropi strain 18 beta-tubulin (tub) gene, partial cds AF146105 Cercospora piaropi strain 114 beta-tubulin (tub) gene, partial cds AF146104 Cercospora piaropi strain RR29 beta-tubulin (tub) gene, partial cds AF146103 Cercospora piaropi strain BA57 beta-tubulin (tub) gene, partial cds AF146102 Cercospora piaropi strain WHV beta-tubulin (tub) gene, partial cds AF146101 Cercospora piaropi strain WH9BR beta-tubulin (tub) gene, partial cds AF146100 Cercospora piaropi strain WH83 beta-tubulin (tub) gene, partial cds AF146099 Cercospora piaropi strain 2867 beta-tubulin (tub) gene, partial cds AF146098 Cercospora piaropi strain 28-1 beta-tubulin (tub) gene, partial cds AF146097 Cercospora piaropi strain 10 beta-tubulin (tub) gene, partial cds AF146096 Cercospora piaropi strain MX3 beta-tubulin (tub) gene, partial cds XM_370153 Magnaporthe grisea 70-15 chromosome II hypothetical protein (MG06650.4) partial mRNA XM_368640 Magnaporthe grisea 70-15 chromosome VI hypothetical protein (MG00604.4) partial mRNA XM_368283 Magnaporthe grisea 70-15 chromosome VI hypothetical protein (MG00961.4) partial mRNA AY944078 Magnaporthe oryzae isolate CH072 beta-tubulin 1 gene, partial cds AY944077 Magnaporthe oryzae isolate SJ10-2-1 beta-tubulin 1 gene, partial cds AY944076 Magnaporthe oryzae isolate SAG00T15 beta-tubulin 1 gene, partial cds AY063737 Magnaporthe grisea isolate 8470 beta-tubulin gene, partial cds AY063736 Magnaporthe grisea isolate 8465 beta-tubulin gene, partial cds AF396004 Magnaporthe salvinii beta-tubulin gene, partial cds AF396000 Magnaporthe grisea strain A119 beta-tubulin gene, partial cds AF395999 Magnaporthe grisea strain Py-D beta-tubulin gene, partial cds AF395998 Magnaporthe grisea strain 91T16 beta-tubulin gene, partial cds AF395997 Magnaporthe grisea strain 81T4 beta-tubulin gene, partial cds AF395996 Magnaporthe grisea strain JP34 beta-tubulin gene, partial cds AF395995 Magnaporthe grisea strain RW12 beta-tubulin gene, partial cds AF395994 Magnaporthe grisea strain NI909 beta-tubulin gene, partial cds AF395993 Magnaporthe grisea strain 1122 beta-tubulin gene, partial cds AF395992 Magnaporthe grisea strain 330 beta-tubulin gene, partial cds AF395991 Magnaporthe grisea strain 365 beta-tubulin gene, partial cds AF395990 Magnaporthe grisea strain T28 beta-tubulin gene, partial cds AF395989 Magnaporthe grisea strain BK-19 beta-tubulin gene, partial cds AF395988 Magnaporthe grisea strain BK-6 beta-tubulin gene, partial cds AF395987 Magnaporthe grisea strain ML-56 beta-tubulin gene, partial cds AF395986 Magnaporthe grisea strain R707-1E beta-tubulin gene, partial cds AF395985 Magnaporthe grisea strain R694-2b beta-tubulin gene, partial cds AF395984 Magnaporthe grisea strain Guy11 beta-tubulin gene, partial cds AF395983 Magnaporthe grisea strain A598 beta-tubulin gene, partial cds AF395982 Magnaporthe grisea strain C10 beta-tubulin gene, partial cds AF395981 Magnaporthe grisea strain A264 beta-tubulin gene, partial cds AF395980 Magnaporthe grisea strain ML-91 beta-tubulin gene, partial cds AF395979 Magnaporthe grisea strain G48 beta-tubulin gene, partial cds AF395978 Magnaporthe grisea strain A347 beta-tubulin gene, partial cds AF395977 Magnaporthe grisea strain K76-79 beta-tubulin gene, partial cds AF395976 Magnaporthe grisea strain 1152 beta-tubulin gene, partial cds AY944090 Magnaporthe oryzae isolate SJ-5-1-2 chitin synthase 1 gene, partial cds AY944089 Magnaporthe oryzae isolate G48 chitin synthase 1 gene, partial cds AY944088 Magnaporthe oryzae isolate ML91 chitin synthase 1 gene, partial eds AY944087 Magnaporthe oryzae isolate GUY11 chitin synthase 1 gene, partial cds AY944086 Magnaporthe oryzae isolate G8 chitin synthase 1 gene, partial cds AY944085 Magnaporthe oryzae isolate G17 chitin synthase 1 gene, partial cds AY944084 Magnaporthe oryzae isolate G119 chitin synthase 1 gene, partial cds AY944083 Magnaporthe oryzae isolate BK6 chitin synthase 1 gene, partial cds AY944082 Magnaporthe oryzae isolate A119 chitin synthase 1 gene, partial cds AY944081 Magnaporthe oryzae isolate 1122 chitin synthase 1 gene, partial cds AY944080 Magnaporthe oryzae isolate 365 chitin synthase 1 gene, partial cds AB018251 Magnaporthe grisea gene for Csm1, complete cds X96416 M. grisea CHS4 gene X96415 M. grisea CHS3 gene X96414 M. grisea CHS2 gene X96413 M. grisea CHS1 gene AF020528 Magnaporthe grisea Class IV chitin synthase (chs4) gene, complete cds

TABLE 2 Plant Diseases Barley Anthracnose (Hordeum Colletotrichum graminicola (Ces.) G. W. Wils. vulgare L.) Glomerella graminicola Politis [teleomorph] Barley stripe Drechslera graminea (Rabenh.) Shoemaker Cephalosporium stripe Hymenula cerealis Ellis & Everh. = Cephalosporium gramineum Nisikado & Ikata in Nisikado el al. Common root rot, crown rot and seedling blight Bipolaris sorokiniana (Sacc.) Shoemaker Fusarium culmorum (Wm. G. Smith) Sacc. F. graminearum Schwabe Gibberella zeae (Schwein.) Petch [teleomorph] Downy mildew Sclerophthora rayssiae Kenneth et al. Dwarf bunt Tilletia controversa Kuhn in Rebenh. Ergot Claviceps purpurea (Fr.:Fr.) Tul. Sphacelia segetum Lev. [anamorph] Eyespot Pseudocercosoporella herpotrichoides (Fron) Deighton Tapesia yallundae Wallwork & Spooner [teleomorph] Halo spot Pseudoseptoria donacis (Pass.) Sutton = Selenophoma donacis (Pass.) R. Sprague & A. G. Johnson = Septoria donacis Kernel blight = black point Alternaria spp. Arthrinium arundinis Dyko. & Sutton Apiospora montagnei Sacc. [teleomorph] Cochliobolus sativus (Ito & Kuribayashi) Drechs. Ex Dastur Fusarium spp. Leaf spot Ascochyta hordei K. Hara (United States, Japan) A. graminea (Sacc.) R. Sprague & A. G. Johnson A. sorghi Sacc. A. tritici S. Hori & Enjoji Net blotch Drechslera teres (Sacc.) Shoemaker Pyrenophora teres Drechs. [teleomorph] Net blotch (spot form) Drechslera teres f. maculata Smedeg. Powdery mildew Erysiphe graminis DC. f. sp. hordei Em. Marchal = Blumeria graminis (DC.) E. O. Speer Oidium monilioides (Nees) Link [anamorph] Pythium root rot Pythium spp. P. arrhenomanes Drechs. P. graminicola Subramanian P. tardicrescens Vanderpool Rhizoctonia root rot Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn Thanatephorus cucumeris (A. B. Frank) Donk [teleomorph] Rusts Crown rust Puccinia coronata Corda Leaf rust Puccinia hordei Otth Stem rust Puccinia graminis Pers.:Pers. Stripe rust = yellow rust Puccinia striiformis Westend. Scab = head blight Fusarium spp. F. graminearum Schwabe Scald Rhynchosporium secalis (Oudem.) J. J. Davis Septoria speckled leaf blotch Septoria passerinni Sacc. Stagonospora avenae f. sp. triticea T. Johnson Sharp eyespot Rhizoctonia cerealis Van der Hoeven Ceratobasidium cereale D. Murray & L. L. Burpee [teleomorph] Smuts Covered smut Ustilago hordei (Pers.) Lagerh. False loose smut Ustilago avenae (Pers.) Rostr. = U. nigra Tapke Loose smut Ustilago tritici (Pers.) Rostr. = U. nuda (C. N. Jensen) Rostr., nom. nud. Snow molds Gray snow mold = Typhula blight Typhula incarnata Fr. T. ishikariensis Imai Pink snow mold = Fusarium patch Microdochium nivale (Fr.) Samuel & I. C. Hallett = Fusarium nivale (Fr.) Sorauer Monographella nivalis (Schaffnit) E. Müller [teleomorph] Speckled snow mold Typhula idahoensis Remsberg Snow rot Pythium iwayamai Ito P. okanoganense Lipps P. paddicum Harane Snow scald = Sclerotinia snow mold Myriosclerotinia borealis (Bubak & Vleugel) L. M. Kohn = Sclerotinia borealis Bubak & Vleugel Southern blight Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. (India, California, Puerto Rico) Athelia rolfsii (Curzi) Tu & Kimbrough [teleomorph] Spot blotch Cochliobolus sativus (Ito & Kuribayashi) Drechs. ex Dastur Drechslera teres (Sacc.) Shoemaker [anamorph] Stagonospora blotch Stagonospora avenae f. sp. triticea T. Johnson Phaeosphaeria avenaria f. sp. triticea T. Johnson [teleomorph] Stagonospora nodrum (Berk.) Castellani & E. G. Germano = Septoria nodorum (Berk.) Berk. in Berk. & Broome Phaeosphaeria nodorum (E. Muller) Hedjaroude [teleomorph] Take-all Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici J. Walker Tan spot Pyrenophora tritici-repentis (Died.) Drechs. = P. trichostoma (Fr.) Fuckel Drechslera tritici-repentis (Died.) Shoemaker [anamorph] = Helminthosporium tritici-repentis Died. Verticillium wilt Verticillium dahliae Kleb. (Idaho) Wirrega blotch Drechslera wirreganensis Wallwork et al. (Australia) Beet Alternaria leaf spot (Beta vulgaris L.) Alternaria alternata (Fr.:Fr.) Keissl. A. brassicae (Berk.) Sacc. Anthracnose* Colletotrichum dematium (Pers.) Grove f. spinaciae (Ellis & Halst.) Arx Aphanomyces root rot (black root) Aphanomyces cochlioides Drechs. Black wood vessel* Pythium irregulare Buisman Cercospora leaf spot Cercospora beticola Sacc. Charcoal rot Macrophomina phaseolina (Tassi) Goidanich Choanephora rot* Choanephora cucurbitatum (Berk. & Ravenel) Thaxt. Damping-off, black leg, black root and seedling blight Aphanomyces cochlioides Drechs. Cylindrocladium sp.* Fusarium spp. Phoma betae A. B. Frank Pleospora betae (Berl.) Nevodovsky [teleomorph] Pythium spp. Rhizoctonia solani Kühn Thanatephorus cucumeris (A. B. Frank) Donk [teleomorph] Downy mildew Peronospora farinosa (Fr.:Fr.) Fr. = P. farinosa (Fr.:Fr) Fr. f. sp. betae Byford = P. schachtii Fuckel Fusarium yellows Fusarium oxysporum Schlechtend.:Fr. f. sp. spinaciae (Sherb.) W. C. Snyder & H. N. Hans. Fusarium yellows and root rot Fusarium oxysporum Schlechtend.:Fr. f. sp. betae (D. Stewart) W. C. Snyder & H. N. Hans. (Texas isolates) Leaf gall (beet tumor, or crown wart) Physoderma leproides (Trab.) Karling = Urophlyctis leproides (Trab.) Magnus Phoma leaf spot and root rot Phoma betae A. B. Frank Phymatotrichum root rot (cotton root rot) Phymatotrichopsis omnivora (Duggar) Hennebert = Phymatotrichum omnivorum Duggar Phytophthora wet rot Phytophthora drechsleri Tucker Powdery mildew Erysiphe polygoni DC. = E. betae Weltzien Pythium root rot Pythium aphanidermatum (Edson) Fitzp. P. deliense Meurs Ramularia leaf spot Ramulariabeticola Fautrey & Lambotte Rhizoctonia foliar blight, crown and root rot Rhizoctonia solani Kühn Rhizopus root rot Rhizopus arrhizus A. Fischer R. stolonifer (Ehrenb.:Fr.) Vuill. Rust Uromycesbetae J. Kickx fil. Sclerotinia crown & root rot Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) de Bary Seedling rust Puccinia subnitens Dietel Slime molds* Physarum cinereum (Batsch) Pers. Southern blight (Sclerotium root rot and stem rot) Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. Athelia rolfsii (Curzi) Tu & Kimbrough [teleomorph] Stemphylium leaf spot* Stemphylium botryosum Wallr. Pleospora tarda E. Simmons [teleomorph] Storage rots Botrytis cinerea Pers.: Fr. Botryotinia fuckeliana (de Bary) Whetzel [teleomorph] Penicillium spp. Phoma betae A. B. Frank Verticillium wilt Verticillium albo-atrum Reinke & Berthier Violet root rot Helicobasidium brebissonii (Desmaz.) Donk Rhizoctonia crocorum (Pers.:Fr.) DC. [anamorph] Coffee Anthracnose (Coffea arabica L. - Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Penz arabica (teleomorph = Glomerella cingulata (Stonem.) Spauld, & coffee) Shrenk.) (Coffea Colleotrichum kahawae Waller & Bridge canephora Pierre Armillaria root rot ex Froehner - Armillaria mellea (Vahl ex Fries) Kummer robusta coffee) Bark disease Fusarium stilboides Wollenw. (teleomorph = Gibberella stilboides) Berry blotch Cercospora coffeicola Berk. & Cke Black (Rosellinia) root rot Rosellinia spp. Black (seedling) root rot Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn. Blister spot Virus (uncharacterised) Brown blight Colleotrichum gloeosporioides Penz. (teleomorph = Glomerella cingulata (Stonem.) Spauld. & Schrenk Colletotrichum kahawae Waller & Bridge Brown eye spot Cercospora coffeicola Berk. & Cke Brown leaf spot Phoma costarricensis Ech. Canker Ceratocystis fimbriata (Ell. & Halst.) Hunt Phomopsis coffeae Bondarzeva-Monteverde Collar rot Fusarium stilboides Wollenz (telemorph = Gibberella stilboides) Coffee berry disease Colletotrichum kahawae Waller & Bridge Die-back Ascochta tarda Stewart Dry root rot Fusarium solani (Mart.) Sacc. Leaf blight Ascochyta tarda Stewart Leaf spot Phyllosticta coffeicola Speg. Pink disease Corticium salmonicola Berk. & Br. Red blister disease (robusta coffee) Cercospora coffeicola Berk. & Br. Red root rot Ganoderma philippi (Bres & P. Henn.) Bres. Root knot Meloidogyne spp. Rust (orange or leaf rust) Hemileia vastatrix Berk. & Br. Rust (powdery or grey rust) Hemileia coffeicola Mauble. & Rog. South America leaf spot Mycena citricola (Berk. & Curt.) (=Omphalia flavida Maubl, & Rang. Anamorph = Stilbum flavidum Cke) Thread blight Corticium koleroga (Cke) Hoehnel Tip blast Phoma costarricensis Ech. Tracheomycosis (Wilt) Gibberella xylarioides Heim & Saccas (anamorph = Fusarium eylarioides Steyaert) Wilt Ceratocystis fimbriata (Ell. & Halst.) Hunt Fusarium oxysporum Schl. f. sp. Coffea (Garcia) Wellman Warty berry Botrytis cinerea Pers. Ex Fries var. coffeae Hendr. Corn or Maize Anthracnose leaf blight and anthracnose stalk rot (Zea mays L.) Colletotrichum graminicola (Ces.) G. W. Wils. (teleomorph: Glomerella graminicola Politis) Glomerella tucumanensis (Speg.) Arx & E. Muller (anamorph: Glomerella falcatum Went) Aspergillus ear and kernel rot Aspergillus flavus Link:Fr. Banded leaf and sheath spot* Rhizoctonia solani Kühn = Rhizoctonia microsclerotia J. Matz (teleomorph: Thanatephorus cucumeris (A. B. Frank) Donk) Black bundle disease Acremonium strictum W. Gams = Cephalosporium acremonium Auct. non Corda Black kernel rot* Lasiodiplodia theobromae (Pat.) Griffon & Maubl. = Botryodiplodia theobromae Pat. Borde blanco* Marasmiellus sp. Brown spot (black spot, stalk rot) Physoderma maydis (Miyabe) Miyabe Cephalosporium kernel rot Acremonium strictum W. Gams = Cephalosporium acremonium Auct. non Corda Charcoal rot Macrophomina phaseolina (Tassi) Goidanich Corticium ear rot* Thanatephorus cucumeris (A. B. Frank) Donk = Corticium sasakii (Shirai) Matsumoto Curvularia leaf spot Curvularia clavata P. C. Jain C. eragrostidis (Henn.) J. A. Meyer = C. maculans (Bancroft) Boedijn (teleomorph: Cochliobolus eragrostidis (Tsuda & Ueyama) Sivanesan Curvularia inaequalis (Shear) Boedijn C. intermedia Boedijn (teleomorph: Cochliobolus intermedius R. R. Nelson) Curvularia lunata (Wakk.) Boedijn (teleomorph: Cochliobolus lunatus R. R. Nelson & Haasis) Curvularia pallescens Boedijn (teleomorph: Cochliobolus pallescens (Tsuda & Ueyama) Sivanesan) Curvularia senegalensis (Speg.) Subramanian C. tuberculata P. C. Jain (teleomorph: Cochliobolus tuberculatus Sivanesan) Didymella leaf spot* Didymella exitalis (Morini) E. Muller Diplodia ear rot and stalk rot Diplodia frumenti Ellis & Everh. (teleomorph: Botryosphaeria festucae (Lib.) Arx & E. Müller Diplodia ear rot, stalk rot, seed rot and seedling blight Diplodia maydis (Berk.) Sacc. Diplodia leaf spot or leaf streak Stenocarpella macrospora (Earle) Sutton = Diplodia macrospora Earle Downy mildews: Brown stripe downy mildew* Sclerophthora rayssiae Kenneth et al. var. zeae Payak & Renfro Crazy top downy mildew Sclerophthora macrospora (Sacc.) Thirumalachar et al. = Sclerospora macrospora Sacc. Green ear downy mildew (graminicola downy mildew) Sclerospora graminicola (Sacc.) J. Schröt. Java downy mildew* Peronosclerospora maydis (Racib.) C. G. Shaw = Sclerospora maydis (Racib.) Butler Philippine downy mildew* Peronosclerospora philippinensis (W. Weston) C. G. Shaw = Sclerospora philippinensis W. Weston Sorghum downy mildew Peronosclerospora sorghi (W. Weston & Uppal) C. G. Shaw = Sclerospora sorghi W. Weston & Uppal Spontaneum downy mildew* Peronosclerospora spontanea (W. Weston) C. G. Shaw = Sclerospora spontanea W. Weston Sugarcane downy mildew* Peronosclerospora sacchari (T. Miyake) Shirai & Hara = Sclerospora sacchari T. Miyake Dry ear rot (cob, kernel and stalk rot) Nigrospora oryzae (Berk. & Broome) Petch (teleomorph: Khuskia oryzae H. J. Hudson) Ear rots, minor Alternaria alternata (Fr.:Fr.) Keissl. = A. tenuis Nees Aspergillus glaucus Link:Fr. A. niger Tiegh. Aspergillus spp. Botrytis cinerea Pers.:Fr. (teleomorph: Botryotinia fuckeliana (de Bary) Whetzel) Cunninghamella sp. Curvularia pallescens Boedijn Doratomyces stemonitis (Pers.:Fr.) F.J. = Cephalotrichum stemonitis (Pers.:Fr.) Link Fusarium culmorum (Wm. G. Sm.) Sacc. Gonatobotrys simplex Corda Pithomyces maydicus (Sacc.) M. B. Ellis Rhizopus microsporus Tiegh. R. stolonifer (Ehrenb.:Fr.) Vuill. = R. nigricans Ehrenb. Scopulariopsis brumptii Salvanet-Duval Ergot* (horse's tooth, diente de caballo) Claviceps gigantea Fuentes et al. (anamorph: Sphacelia sp.) Eyespot Aureobasidium zeae (Narita & Hiratsuka) J. M. Dingley = Kabatiella zeae Narita & Hiratsuka Fusarium ear and stalk rot Fusarium subglutinans (Wollenweb. & Reinking) P. E. Nelson et al. = F. moniliforme J. Sheld. var. subglutinans Wollenweb. & Reinking Fusarium kernel, root and stalk rot, seed rot and seedling blight Fusarium moniliforme J. Sheld. (teleomorph: Gibberella fujikuroi (Sawada) Ito in Ito & K. Kimura) Fusarium stalk rot, seedling root rot Fusarium avenaceum (Fr.:Fr.) Sacc. (teleomorph: Gibberella avenacea R. J. Cooke) Gibberella ear and stalk rot Gibberella zeae (Schwein.) Petch (anamorph: Fusarium graminearum Schwabe) Gray ear rot Botryosphaeria zeae (G. L. Stout) Arx & E. Müller = Physalospora zeae G. L. Stout (anamorph: Macrophoma zeae Tehon & E. Y. Daniels) Gray leaf spot (Cercospora leaf spot) Cercospora sorghi Ellis & Everh. = C. sorghi Ellis & Everh. var. maydis Ellis & Everh. C. zeae-maydis Tehon & E. Y. Daniels Helminthosporium root rot Exserohilum pedicellatum (A. W. Henry) K. J. Leonard & E. G. Suggs = Helminthosporium pedicellatum A. W. Henry (teleomorph: Setosphaeria pedicellata (R. R. Nelson) K. J. Leonard & E. G. Suggs) Hormodendrum ear rot (Cladosporium rot) Cladosporium cladosporioides (Fresen.) G. A. De Vries = Hormodendrum cladosporioides (Fresen.) Sacc. C. herbarum (Pers.:Fr.) Link (teleomorph: Mycosphaerella tassiana (De Not.) Johans.) Hyalothyridium leaf spot* Hyalothyridium maydis Latterell & Rossi Late wilt* Cephalosporium maydis Samra et al. Leaf spots, minor Alternaria alternata (Fr.:Fr.) Keissl. Ascochyta maydis G. L. Stout A. tritici S. Hori & Enjoji A. zeicola Ellis & Everh. Bipolaris victoriae (F. Meehan & Murphy) Shoemaker = Helminthosporium victoriae F. Meehan & Murphy (teleomorph: Cochliobolus victoriae R. R. Nelson) C. sativus (Ito & Kuribayashi) Drechs. ex Dastur (anamorph: Bipolaris sorokiniana (Sacc.) Shoemaker = H. sorokinianum Sacc. in Sorokin = H. sativum Pammel et al.) Epicoccum nigrum Link Exserohilum prolatum K. J. Leonard & E. G. Suggs = Drechslera prolata (K. J. Leonard & E. G. Suggs) Sivanesan (teleomorph: Setosphaeria prolata K. J. Leonard & E. G. Suggs) Graphium penicillioides Corda Leptosphaeria maydis G. L. Stout Leptothyrium zeae G. L. Stout Ophiosphaerella herpotricha (Fr.:Fr.) J. C. Walker (anamorph: Scolecosporiella sp.) Paraphaeosphaeria michotii (Westend.) O. Eriksson Phoma sp. Septoria zeae G. L. Stout S. zeicola G. L. Stout S. zeina G. L. Stout Northern corn leaf blight (white blast, crown stalk rot, stripe) Setosphaeria turcica (Luttrell) K. J. Leonard & E. G. Suggs (anamorph: Exserohilum turcicum (Pass.) K. J. Leonard & E. G. Suggs = Helminthosporium turcicum Pass.) Northern corn leaf spot, Helminthosporium ear rot (race 1) Cochlioboluscarbonum R. R. Nelson (anamorph: Bipolaris zeicola (G. L. Stout) Shoemaker = Helminthosporium carbonum Ullstrup) Penicillium ear rot (blue eye, blue mold) Penicillium spp. P. chrysogenum Thom P. expansum Link P. oxalicum Currie & Thom Phaeocytostroma stalk rot and root rot Phaeocytostroma ambiguum (Mont.) Petr. & Syd. = Phaeocytosporella zeae G. L. Stout Phaeosphaeria leaf spot* Phaeosphaeria maydis (P. Henn.) Rane, Payak & Renfro = Sphaerulina maydis P. Henn. Physalospora ear rot (Botryosphaeria ear rot) Botryosphaeria festucae (Lib.) Arx & E. Müller = Physalospora zeicola Ellis & Everh. (anamorph: Diplodia frumenti Ellis & Everh.) Purple leaf sheath Hemiparasitic bacteria and fungi Pyrenochaeta stalk rot and root rot Phoma terrestris E. M. Hans. = Pyrenochaeta terrestris (E. M. Hans.) Gorenz et al. Pythium root rot Pythiumn spp. P. arrhenomanes Drechs. P. graminicola Subramanian Pythium stalk rot Pythium aphanidermatum (Edson) Fitzp. = P. butleri L. Subramanian Red kernel disease (ear mold, leaf and seed rot) Epicoccum nigrum Link Rhizoctonia ear rot (sclerotial rot) Rhizoctonia zeaeVoorhees (teleomorph: Waitea circinata Warcup & Talbot) Rhizoctonia root rot and stalk rot Rhizoctonia solani Kühn R. zeae Voorhees Root rots, minor Alternaria alternata (Fr.:Fr.) Keissl. Cercospora sorghi Ellis & Everh. Dictochaeta fertilis (S. J. Hughes & Kendrick) Holubova-Jechova Fusarium acuminatum Ellis & Everh. (teleomorph: Gibberella acuminata Wollenweb.) F. equiseti (Corda) Sacc. (teleomorph: G. intricans Wollenweb.) F. oxysporum Schlechtend.:Fr. F. pallidoroseum (Cooke) Sacc. F. poae (Peck) Wollenweb. F. roseum Link:Fr. G. cyanogena (Desmaz.) Sacc. (anamorph: F. sulphureum Schlechtend.) Microdochium bolleyi (R. Sprague) DeHoog & Hermanides-Nijhof Mucor sp. Periconia circinata (L. Mangin) Sacc. Phytophthora cactorum (Lebert & Cohn) J. Schrot. P. drechsleri Tucker P. nicotianae Breda de Haan var. parasitica (Dastur) G. M. Waterhouse Rhizopus arrhizus A. Fischer Rostratum leaf spot (Helminthosporium leaf disease, ear and stalk rot) Setosphaeria rostrata K. J. Leonard (anamorph: Exserohilum rostratum (Drechs.) K. J. Leonard & E. G. Suggs = Helminthosporium rostratum Drechs.) Rust, common corn Puccinia sorghi Schwein. Rust, southern corn Puccinia polysora Underw. Rust, tropical corn Physopella pallescens (Arth.) Cummins & Ramachar P. zeae (Mains) Cummins & Ramachar = Angiopsora zeae Mains Sclerotium ear rot* (southern blight) Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. (teleomorph: Athelia rolfsii (Curzi) Tu & Kimbrough) Seed rot-seedling blight Bipolaris sorokiniana (Sacc.) Shoemaker B. zeicola (G. L. Stout) Shoemaker = Helminthosporium carbonum Ullstrup Diplodia maydis (Berk.) Sacc. Exserohilum pedicillatum (A. W. Henry) K. J. Leonard & E. G. Suggs Exserohilum turcicum (Pass.) K. J. Leonard & E. G. Suggs = Helminthosporium turcicum Pass. Fusarium avenaceum (Fr.:Fr.) Sacc. F. culmorum (Wm. G. Sm.) Sacc. F. moniliforme J. Sheld. Gibberella zeae (Schwein.) Petch (anamorph: F. graminearum Schwabe) Macrophomina phaseolina (Tassi) Goidanich Penicillium spp. Phomopsis sp. Pythium spp. Rhizoctonia solani Kühn R. zeae Voorhees Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. Spicaria sp. Selenophoma leaf spot* Selenophoma sp. Sheath rot Gaeumannomyces graminis (Sacc.) Arx & D. Olivier Shuck rot Myrothecium gramineum Lib. Silage mold Monascus purpureus Went M. ruber Tiegh. Smut, common Ustilago zeae (Beckm.) Unger = U. maydis (DC.) Corda) Smut, false Ustilaginoidea virens (Cooke) Takah. Smut, head Sphacelotheca reiliana (Kuhn) G. P. Clinton) = Sporisorium holci-sorghi (Rivolta) K. Vanky Southern corn leaf blight and stalk rot Cochliobolus heterostrophus (Drechs.) Drechs. (anamorph: Bipolaris maydis (Nisikado & Miyake) Shoemaker = Helminthosporium maydis (Nisikado & Miyake) Southern leaf spot Stenocarpella macrospora (Earle) Sutton = Diplodia macrospora Earle) Stalk rots, minor Cercospora sorghi Ellis & Everh. Fusarium episphaeria (Tode) W. C. Snyder & H. N. Hans. F. merismoides Corda F. oxysporum Schlechtend.:Fr. F. poae (Peck) Wollenweb. F. roseum Link:Fr. F. solani (Mart.) Sacc. (teleomorph: Nectria haematococca Berk. & Broome) F. tricinctum (Corda) Sacc. Mariannaea elegans (Corda) R. A. Samson Mucor sp. Rhopographus zeae Pat. Spicaria sp. Storage rots Aspergillus spp. Penicillium spp. and other fungi Tar spot* Phyllachora maydis Maubl. Trichoderma ear rot and root rot Trichoderma viride Pers.:Fr. = T. lignorum (Tode) (teleomorph: Hypocrea sp.) White ear rot, root and stalk rot Stenocarpella maydis (Berk.) Sutton = Diplodia zeae (Schwein.) Lév. Yellow leaf blight Ascochyta ischaemi Sacc. Phyllosticta maydis D. C. Arny & R. R. Nelson (teleomorph: Mycosphaerella zeae-maydis Mukunya & Boothroyd) Zonate leaf spot Gloeocercospora sorghi Bain & Edgerton ex Deighton Cotton Anthracnose (Gossypium spp.) Glomerella gossypii Edgerton Colletotrichum gossypii Southworth [anamorph] Areolate mildew Ramularia gossypii (Speg.) Cif. = Cercosporella gossypii Speg. Mycosphaerella areola J. Ehrlich & F. A. Wolf [teleomorph] Ascochyta blight Ascochyta gossypii Woronichin Black root rot Thielaviopsis basicola (Berk. & Broome) Ferraris Chalara elegans Nag Raj & Kendrick [synanamorph] Boll rot Ascochyta gossypii Woronichin Colletotrichum gossypii Southworth Glomerella gossypii Edgerton [teleomorph] Fusarium spp. Lasiodiplodia theobromae (Pat.) Griffon & Maubl. = Diplodia gossypina (Cooke) Botryosphaeria rhodina (Cooke) Arx [teleomorph] = Physalospora rhodina Cooke Phytophthora spp. Rhizoctonia solani Kühn Charcoal rot Macrophomina phaseolina (Tassi) Goidanich Escobilla* Colletotrichum gossypii Southworth Glomerella gossypii Edgerton [teleomorph] Fusarium wilt Fusarium oxysporum Schlechtend.:Fr. f. sp. vasinfectum (Atk.) W. C. Snyder & H. N. Hans. Leaf spot Alternaria macrospora A. Zimmerm. A. alternata (FR.:FR.) Keissl. Cercospora gossypina Cooke Mycosphaerella gossypina (Atk.) Earle [teleomorph] Cochliobolus spicifer R. R. Nelson Bipolaris spicifera (Bainier) Subramanian [anamorph] = Curvularia spicifera (Bainier) Boedijn Myrothecium roridum Tode:Fr Rhizoctonia solani Kühn Stemphylium solani G. F. Weber Lint contamination Aspergillus flavus Link:Fr. Nematospora spp. Nigrospora oryzae (Berk. & Broome) Petch Phymatotrichum root rot = cotton root rot Phymatotrichopsis omnivora (Duggar) Hennebert = Phymatotrichum omnivorum Duggar Powdery mildew* Leveillula taurica (Lev) G. Arnaud Oidiopsis sicula Scalia [anamorph] = Oidiopsis gossypii (Wakef.) Raychaudhuri Salmonia malachrae (Seaver) Blumer & E. Muller Rust Cotton rust Puccinia schedonnardi Kellerm. & Swingle Southwestern cotton rust Puccinia cacabata Arth. & Holw. in Arth. Tropical cotton rust* Phakopsora gossypii (Lagerh.) Hiratsuka Sclerotium stem and root rot = southern blight Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. Athelia rolfsii (Curzi) Tu & Kimbrough [teleomorph] Seedling disease complex Colletotrichum gossypii Southworth Fusarium spp. Pythium spp. Rhizoctonia solani Kühn Thanatephorus cucumeris (A. B. Frank) Donk [teleomorph] Thielaviopsis basicola (Berk. & Broome) Ferraris Chalara elegans Nag Raj & Kendrick [synanamorph] Stem canker Phoma exigua Desmaz. Verticillium wilt Verticillium dahliae Kleb. Hop Alternaria cone disorder (Humulus lupulus L.) Alternaria alternata (Fr.:Fr.) Keissl. = Alternaria tenuis Nees Armillaria root rot (shoestring root rot) Armillaria mellea (Vahl: Fr.) P. Kumm. (anamorph: Rhizomorpha subcorticalis Pers.) Black root rot Phytophthora citricola Sawada = P. cactorum (Lebert & Cohn) J. Schröt. var. applanat F. Chester Canker Fusarium sambucinum Fuckel (teleomorph: Gibberella pulicaris (Fr.:Fr.) Sacc.) Downy mildew Pseudoperonospora humuli (Miyabe & Takah.) G. W. Wils. Gray mold Botrytis cinerea Pers.:Fr. (teleomorph: Botryotinia fuckeliana (de Bary) Whetzel) Leaf spots Septoria humuli Westend. = Ascochyta humuli Lasch Mycocentrospora cantuariensis (Salmon & Wormald) Deighton = Cercospora cantuariensis Salmon & Wormald Phoma wilt Phoma herbarum Westend. Powdery mildew Sphaerotheca macularis (Wallr.:Fr.) Lind = Sphaerotheca humuli (DC.) Burrill Rosellinia root rot (Dematophora root rot) Rosellinia necatrix Prill. (anamorph: Dematophora necatrix R. Hartig) Sclerotinia wilt Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) de Bary Verticillium wilt Verticillium albo-atrum Reinke & Berthier V. dahliae Kleb. Oats Anthracnose (Avena sativa L.) Colletotrichum graminicola (Ces.) G. W. Wils. (teleomorph: Glomerella graminicola Politis) Blast Unfavorable environmental conditions and/or any of several pathogens Downy mildew Sclerophthora macrospora (Sacc.) Thirumalachar et al. Ergot Claviceps purpurea (Fr.:Fr.) Tul. (anamorph: Sphacelia segetum Lév.) Fusarium foot rot Fusarium culmorum (Wm. G. Sm.) Sacc. Head blight Bipolaris sorokiniana (Sacc.) Shoemaker (teleomorph: Cochliobolus sativus (Ito & Kuribayashi) Drechs. ex Dastur) Drechslera avenacea (M. A. Curtis ex Cooke) Shoemaker Fusarium graminearum Schwabe (teleomorph: Gibberella zeae (Schwein.) Petch) Fusarium spp. Leaf blotch and crown rot (Helminthosporium leaf blotch) Drechslera avenacea (M. A. Curtis ex Cooke) Shoemaker = Helminthosporium avenaceum M. A. Curtis ex Cooke D. avenae (Eidam) Scharif = H. avenae Eidam (teleomorph: Pyrenophora avenae Ito & Kuribayashi) Powdery mildew Erysiphe graminis DC. f. sp. avenae Em. Marchal E. graminis DC. (anamorph: Oidium monilioides (Nees) Link) Rhizoctonia root rot Rhizoctonia solani Kühn (teleomorph: Thanatephorus cucumeris (A. B. Frank) Donk) Root rot Bipolaris sorokiniana (Sacc.) Shoemaker Fusarium spp. Pythium spp. P. debaryanum Auct. non R. Hesse P. irregulare Buisman P. ultimum Trow Rust, crown Pucciniacoronata Corda Rust, stem Puccinia graminis Pers. Seedling blight Bipolaris sorokiniana (Sacc.) Shoemaker Drechslera avenae (Eidam) Scharif Fusarium culmorum (Wm. G. Sm.) Sacc. Pythium spp. Rhizoctonia solani Kühn Sharp eyespot Rhizoctonia cerealis Van der Hoeven (teleomorph: Ceratobasidium cereale D. Murray & L. L. Burpee) Smut, covered Ustilago segetum (Bull.:Pers.) Roussel = U. kolleri Wille Smut, loose Ustilago avenae (Pers.) Rostr. Snow mold, pink (Fusarium patch) Microdochium nivale (Fr.) Samuel & I. C. Hallett = Fusarium nivale Ces. ex Berl. & Voglino (teleomorph: Monographella nivalis (Schaffnit) E. Müller) Snow mold, speckled or gray (Typhula blight) Typhula idahoensis Remsberg T. incarnata Lasch:Fr. T. ishikariensis Imai Speckled blotch (Septoria blight) Stagonospora avenae (A. B. Frank) Bissett = Septoria avenae A. B. Frank (teleomorph: Phaeosphaeria avenaria G. F. Weber) O. Eriksson) Take-all (white head) Gaeumannomyces graminis (Sacc.) Arx & D. Olivier var. avenae (E. M. Turner) Dennis G. graminis (Sacc.) Arx & D. Olivier Victoria blight Bipolaris victoriae (F. Meehan & Murphy) Shoemaker (teleomorph: Cochliobolus victoriae R. R. Nelson) Peanut (Arachis Alternaria leaf blight hypogaea L.) Alternaria tenuissima (Kunze:Fr.) Wiltshire Alternaria leaf spot Alternaria arachidis Kulk. Alternaria spot and veinal necrosis Alternaria alternata (Fr.:Fr.) Keissl. Anthracnose Colletotrichum arachidis Sawada (not validly published) C. dematium (Pers.) Grove C. mangenoti Chevaugeon Aspergillus crown rot Aspergillus niger Tiegh. Blackhull Thielaviopsis basicola (Berk. & Broome) Ferraris (synanamorph: Chalara elegans Nag Raj & Kendrick) Botrytis blight Botrytis cinerea Pers.:Fr. (teleomorph: Botryotinia fuckeliana (de Bary) Whetzel) Charcoal rot and Macrophomina leaf spot Macrophomina phaseolina (Tassi) Goidanich = Rhizoctonia bataticola (Tassi) E. J. Butler Choanephora leaf spot Choanephora spp. Collar rot Lasiodiplodia theobromae (Pat.) Griffon & Maubl. = Diplodia gossypina Cooke Colletotrichum leaf spot Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Penz.) Penz. & Sacc. in Penz. (teleomorph: Glomerella cingulata (Stoneman) Spauld. & H. Schrenk) Cylindrocladium black rot Cylindrocladium crotalariae (C. A. Loos) D. K. Bell & Sobers (teleomorph: Calonectria crotalariae (C. A. Loos) D. K. Bell & Sobers) Cylindrocladium leaf spot Cylindrocladium scoparium Morg. (teleomorph: Calonectria keyotensis Terishita) Damping-off, Aspergillus Aspergillus flavus Link:Fr. A. niger Tiegh. Damping-off, Fusarium Fusarium spp. Damping-off, Pythium Pythium spp. Damping-off, Rhizoctonia Rhizoctonia spp. Damping-off, Rhizopus Rhizopus spp. Drechslera leaf spot Bipolaris spicifera (Bainier) Subramanian = Drechslera spicifera (Bainier) Arx (teleomorph: Cochliobolus spicifer R. R. Nelson) Fusarium peg and root rot Fusarium spp. Fusarium wilt Fusarium oxysporum Schlechtend.:Fr. Leaf spot, early Cercospora arachidicola S. Hori (teleomorph: Mycosphaerella arachidis Deighton) Leaf spot, late Phaeoisariopsis personata (Berk. & M. A. Curtis) Arx = Cercosporidium personatum (Berk. & M. A. Curtis) Deighton (teleomorph: Mycosphaerella berkeleyi Jenk.) Melanosis Stemphylium botryosum Wallr. (teleomorph: Pleospora tarda E. Simmons) Myrothecium leaf blight Myrothecium roridum Tode:Fr. Olpidium root rot Olpidium brassicae (Woronin) P. A. Dang. Pepper spot and scorch Leptosphaerulina crassiasca (Sechet) C. R. Jackson & D. K. Bell Pestalotiopsis leaf spot Pestalotiopsis arachidis Satya Phoma leaf blight Phoma microspora Berk. & M. A. Curtis nom. nud. non Sacc. non Pat. hom. illeg. Phomopsis foliar blight Phomopsis phaseoli (Desmaz.) Sacc. = P. sojae Lehman (teleomorph: Diaporthe phaseolorum (Cooke & Ellis) Sacc.) Phomopsis leaf spot Phomopsis spp. Phyllosticta leaf spot Phyllosticta arachidis-hypogaea V. G. Rao P. sojicola C. Massal. (teleomorph: Pleosphaerulina sojicola Miura) Phymatotrichum root rot Phymatotrichopsis omnivora (Duggar) Hennebert = Phymatotrichum omnivorum Duggar Pod rot (pod breakdown) Fusarium equiseti (Corda) Sacc. = F. scirpi Lambotte & Fautrey (teleomorph: Gibberella intricans Wollenweb.) F. solani (Mart.) Sacc. (teleomorph: Nectria haematococca Berk. & Broome) Pythium myriotylum Drechs. Rhizoctonia solani Kühn (teleomorph: Thanatephorus cucumeris (A. Frank) Donk) Powdery mildew Oidium arachidis Chorin Pythium peg and root rot Pythium myriotylum Drechs. P. aphanidermatum (Edson) Fitzp. P. debaryanum Auct. non R. Hesse P. irregulare Buisman P. ultimum Trow Pythium wilt Pythium myriotylum Drechs. Rhizoctonia foliar blight, peg and root rot Rhizoctonia solani Kühn Rust Puccinia arachidis Speg. Scab Sphaceloma arachidis Bitancourt & Jenk. Sclerotinia blight Sclerotinia minor Jagger S. sclerotiorum (Lib.) de Bary Stem rot (southern blight) Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. (teleomorph: Athelia rolfsii (Curzi) Tu & Kimbrough) Verticillium wilt Verticillium albo-atrum Reinke & Berthier V. dahliae Kleb. Web blotch (net blotch) Phoma arachidicola Marasas et al. = Ascochyta adzamethica Schoschiaschvili (teleomorph: Didymosphaeria arachidicola (Chochrjakov) Alcorn et al. = Mycosphaerella arachidicola Chochrjakov) Yellow mold Aspergillus flavus Link:Fr. A. parasiticus Speare Zonate leaf spot Cristulariella moricola (Hino) Redhead (synanamorph: Sclerotium cinnomomi Sawada) (teleomorph: Grovesinia pyramidalis M. Cline et al.) Potato Black dot (Solanum Colletotrichum coccodes (Wallr.) S. J. Hughes = C. atramentarium tuberosum L.) (Berk. & Broome) Taubenhaus Brown spot and Black pit Alternaria alternata (Fries.) Keissler = A. tenuis Ness. Cercospora leaf blotch Mycovellosiella concors (Casp.) Deighton = Cercospora concors (Casp.) Sacc. Cercospora solani Thiim C. solani-tuberosi Thirumalachur* Charcoal rot Macrophomina phaseolina (Tassi) Goidanich = M. phaseoli (Maubl.) Sclerotium bataticola Taubenhaus Choanephora blight Choanephora cucurbitarum (Berk. & Rav.) Thaxter Common rust Puccinia pittieriana P. Henn. Deforming rust Aecidium cantensis Arthur Early blight Alternaria solani (E&M) Jones & Grout Fusarium dry rot Fusarium spp. F. sambucinum Giberella pulicaris (Fr.:Fr.) Sacc. [teleomorph] = Fusarium sulphureum Schlechtendahl F. solani (Mart.) Sacc. var. coeruleum (Lib. ex Sacc.) C. Booth Other Fusarium spp. include: F. avenaceum (Fr.) Sacc. F. oxysporum Schlechtend.:Fr. F. culmorum (Wm. G. Sm.) Sacc. Less common Fusarium spp. include: F. acuminatum Ellis & Everh. F. equiseti (Corda) Sacc. F. crookwellense Fusarium wilt Fusarium spp. F. avenaceum (Fr.) Sacc. F. oxysporum Schlechtend.:Fr. F. solani f. sp. eumartii (Carp.) Snyd and Hans. Gangrene Phoma solanicola f. foveata (Foister) Malcolmson P. foveata Foister = P. exigua var. foveata (Foister) Boerema = P. exigua Desm. f. sp. foveata (Foister) Malcolmson & Gray P. exigua Desm. var. exigua (more ubiquitous but weaker pathogen) Gray mold Botrytis cinerea Pers.:Fr. Botryotinia fuckeliana (de Bary) Whetzel [teleomorph] Late blight Phytophthora infestans (Mont.) de Bary Leak Pythium spp. Pythium ultimum var. ultimum Trow. = P. debaryanum R. Hesse Pythium aphanidermatum (Edson) Fitz. P. deliense Meurs Phoma leaf spot* Phoma andigena var. andina Turkensteen Pink rot Phytophthora spp. P. cryptogea Pethybr. & Lafferty P. drechsleri Tucker P. erythroseptica Pethybr. P. megasperma Drechsler P. nicotianae van Breda de Haan var. parasitica (Dastur) Waterhouse Pleospora herbarum Pleospora herbarum (Pers. ex Fr.) Rabenh. Stemphylium herbarum E. Simmons [anamorph] Powdery mildew Erysiphe cichoracearum DC. ex Merat Powdery scab Spongospora subterranea (Wallr.) Lagerh. f. sp. subterranea Tomlinson Rhizoctonia canker and black scurf Rhizoctonia solani Kühn Thanatephorus cucumeris (A. B. Frank) Donk [teleomorph] Rosellinia black rot* Rosellinia sp. Dematophora sp. [anamorph] Septoria leaf spot Septoria lycopersici Speg. var. malagutii Ciccarone & Boerema Silver scurf Helminthosporium solani Dur. & Mont. Skin spot Polyscytalum pustulans (Owen & Wakef.) Ellis Stem rot (southern blight) Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. Athelia rolfsii (Curzi) Tu & Kimbrough [teleomorph] Thecaphora smut Angiosorus solani (Barrus) Thirum. & O'Brien = Thecaphora solani Barrus Ulocladium blight Ulocladium atrum Preuss Verticillium wilt Verticillium albo-atrum Reinke & Berthier V. dahliae Kleb. Wart Synchytrium endobioticum (Schilb.) Perc. White mold Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) de Bary Rice Aggregate sheath spot (Oryza sativa L.) Ceratobasidium oryzae-sativae Gunnell & Webster (anamorph: Rhizoctonia oryzae-sativae (Sawada) Mordue) Black kernel Curvularia lunata (Wakk.) Boedijn (teleomorph: Cochiobolus lunatus R. R. Nelson & Haasis) Blast (leaf, neck [rotten neck], nodal and collar) Pyricularia grisea Sacc. = P. oryzae Cavara (teleomorph: Magnaporthe grisea (Hebert) Barr) Brown spot Cochliobolus miyabeanus (Ito & Kuribayashi) Drechs. ex Dastur (anamorph: Bipolaris oryzae (Breda de Haan) Shoemaker) Crown sheath rot Gaeumannomyces graminis (Sacc.) Arx & D. Olivier Downy mildew Sclerophthora macrospora (Sacc.) Thirumalachar et al. Eyespot Drechslera gigantea (Heald & F. A. Wolf) Ito False smut Ustilaginoidea virens (Cooke) Takah. Kernel smut Tilletia barclayana (Bref.) Sacc. & Syd. in Sacc. = Neovossia horrida (Takah.) Padwick & A. Khan Leaf smut Entyloma oryzae Syd. & P. Syd. Leaf scald Microdochium oryzae (Hashioka & Yokogi) Samuels & I. C. Hallett = Rhynchosporium oryzae Hashioka & Yokogi Narrow brown leaf spot Cercospora janseana (Racib.) O. Const. = C. oryzae Miyake (teleomorph: Sphaerulina oryzina K. Hara) Pecky rice (kernel spotting) Damage by many fungi including Cochliobolus miyabeanus (Ito & Kuribayashi) Drechs. ex Dastur, Curvularia spp., Fusarium spp., Microdochium oryzae (Hashioka & Yokogi) Samuels & I. C. Halett, Sarocladium oryzae (Sawada) W. Gams & D. Hawksworth and other fungi. Root rots Fusarium spp. Pythium spp. P. dissotocum Drechs. P. spinosum Sawada Seedling blight Cochliobolus miyabeanus (Ito & Kuribayashi) Drechs. ex Dastur, Curvularia spp., Fusarium spp., Rhizoctonia solani Kühn, Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. (teleomorph: Athelia rolfsii (Curzi) Tu & Kimbrough), and other pathogenic fungi. Sheath blight Thanatephorus cucumeris (A. B. Frank) Donk (anamorph: Rhizoctonia solani Kühn) Sheath rot Sarocladium oryzae (Sawada) W. Gams & D. Hawksworth = Acrocylindrium oryzae Sawada Sheath spot Rhizoctonia oryzae Ryker & Gooch Stackburn (Alternaria leaf spot) Alternaria padwickii (Ganguly) M. B. Ellis Stem rot Magnaporthe salvinii (Cattaneo) R. Krause & Webster (synanamorphs: Sclerotium oryzae Cattaneo, Nakataea sigmoidae (Cavara) K. Hara) Water-mold (seed-rot and seedling disease) Achlya conspicua Coker A. klebsiana Pieters Fusarium spp. Pythium spp. P. dissotocum Drechs. P. spinosum Sawada Rye Anthracnose (Secale cereale L.) Colletotrichum graminicola (Ces.) G. W. Wilson (teleomorph: Glomerella graminicola Politis) Black head molds Alternaria spp. Cladosporium herbarum (Pers.:Fr.) Link (teleomorph: Mycosphaerella tassiana (De Not.) Johans.) Epicoccum spp. Sporobolomyces spp. Stemphylium spp. Black point Bipolaris sorokiniana (Sacc.) Shoemaker (teleomorph: Cochliobolus sativus (Ito & Kuribayashi) Drechs. ex Dastur) Fusarium spp. Bunt (stinking smut) Tilletiacaries (DC.) Tul. & C. Tul. = T. tritici (Bjerk.) G. Wint. in Rabenh. T. laevis Kühn in Rabenh. = T. foetida (Wallr.) Liro Cephalosporium stripe Hymenula cerealis Ellis & Everh. = Cephalosporium gramineum Nisikado & Ikata in Nisikado et al. Common root rot and seedling blight Bipolaris sorokiniana (Sacc.) Shoemaker = Helminthosporium sativum Pammel et al. Cottony snow mold (winter crown rot) Coprinus psychromorbidus Redhead & J. A. Traquair Dilophospora leaf spot (twist) Dilophospora alopecuri (Fr.:Fr.) Fr. Dwarf bunt Tilletia controversa Kühn in Rabenh. Ergot Claviceps purpurea (Fr.:Fr.) Tul. (anamorph: Sphacelia segetum Lév.) Fusarium root rot Fusarium culmorum (W. G. Sm.) Sacc. Halo spot Pseudoseptoria donacis (Pass.) Sutton = Selenophoma donacis (Pass.) Sprague & A. G. Johnson Karnal bunt (partial bunt) Neovossia indica (Mitra) Mundkur = Tilletia indica Mitra Leaf rust (brown rust) Puccinia recondita Roberge ex Desmaz. (anamorph: Aecidium clematidis DC.) Leaf streak Cercosporidium graminis (Fuckel) Deighton = Scolicotrichum graminis Fuckel Leptosphaeria leaf spot Phaeosphaeria herpotrichoides (De Not.) L. Holm = Leptosphaeria herpotrichoides De Not. Loose smut Ustilago tritici (Pers.) Rostr. Pink snow mold (Fusarium patch) Microdochium nivale (Fr.) Samuels & I. C. Hallet = Fusarium nivale Ces. ex Berl. & Voglino (teleomorph: Monographella nivalis (Schaffnit) E. Muller) Powdery mildew Erysiphe graminis DC. f. sp. Em. Marchal Pythium root rot Pythium aphanidermatum (Edson) Fitzp. P. arrhenomanes Drechs. P. debaryanum Auct. non Hesse P. graminicola Subramanian P. ultimum Trow Scab Gibberella zeae (Schwein.) Petch (anamorph: Fusarium graminearum Schwabe) Scald Rhynchosporium secalis (Oudem.) J. J. Davis Septoria leaf blotch Septoria secalis Prill. & Delacr. Septoria tritici blotch (speckled leaf blotch) Septoriatritici Roberge in Desmaz. (teleomorph: Mycosphaerella graminicola (Fuckel) J. Schröt. in Cohn) Sharp eyespot and Rhizoctonia root rot Rhizoctonia cerealis Van der Hoeven (teleomorph: Ceratobasidium cereale D. Murray & L. L. Burpee) Snow scald (Sclerotinia snow mold) Myriosclerotinia borealis (Bubák. & Vleugel) L. M. Kohn = Sclerotinia borealis Bubák. & Vleugel Speckled (or gray) snow mold (Typhula blight) Typhula idahoensis Remsberg T. incarnata Fr. T. ishikariensis Imai T. ishikariensis Imai var. canadensis J. D. Smith & Arsvoll in Arsvoll & J. D. Smith Spot blotch Bipolaris sorokiniana (Sacc.) Shoemaker Stagonospora blotch (glume blotch) Stagonospora nodorum (Berk.) Castellani & E. G. Germano = Septoria nodorum Berk. in Berk. & Broome (teleomorph: Phaeosphaeria nodorum (E. Müller) Hedjaroude = Leptosphaeria nodorum E. Müller) Stalk smut (stripe smut) Urocystis occulta (Wallr.) Rabenh. ex Fuckel Stem rust Puccinia graminis Pers.:Pers. = P. graminis Pers. f. sp. secalis Eriks. & E. Henn. Storage molds Alternaria spp. Aspergillus spp. Epicoccum spp. Nigrospora spp. Penicillium spp. Rhizopus spp. Strawbreaker (eyespot or foot rot) Pseudocercosporella herpotrichoides (Fron) Deighton Stripe rust (yellow rust) Puccinia striiformis Westend. (anamorph: Uredo glumarum J. C. Schmidt) Take-all Gaeumannomyces graminis (Sacc.) Arx & Olivier var. tritici J. Walker Tan spot (yellow leaf spot) Pyrenophora tritici-repentis (Died.) Drechs. (anamorph: Drechslera tritici-repentis (Died.) Shoemaker = Helminthosporium tritici-repentis Died.) Soybeans Alternaria leaf spot (Glycine max (L.) Alternaria spp. Merrill) Anthracnose Colletotrichum truncatum (Schwein.) Andrus & W. D. Moore C. dematium (Pers.) Grove f. truncatum (Schwein.) Andrus & W. D. Moore Glomerella glycines F. Lehm. & F. A. Wolf Colletotrichum destructivum O'Gara [anamorph] Black leaf blight* Arkoola nigra J. Walker & G. Stovold Black root rot Thielaviopsis basicola (Berk. & Broome) Ferraris Chalara elegans Naj Raj & Kendrick [synanamorph] Brown spot Septoria glycines Hemmi Mycosphaerella usoenskajae Mashk & Tomil [teleomorph] Brown stem rot Phialophora gregata (Allington & D. W. Chamberlain) W. Gams = Cephalosporium gregatum Allington & D. W. Chamberlain Charcoal rot Macrophomina phaseolina (Tassi) Goidanich Choanephora leaf blight Choanephora infundibulifera (Currey) Sacc. C. trispora (Thaxter) Damping-off Rhizoctonia solani Kühn Thanatephorus cucumeris (A. B. Frank) Donk [teleomorph] Pythium aphanidermatum (Edison) Fitzp. P. debaryanum Auct. non R. Hesse P. irregulare Buisman P. myriotylum Drechs. P. ultimum Trow Downy mildew Peronospora manshurica (Naumov) Syd. In Gaum. Drechslera blight Drechslera glycines Narayanasamy & Durairj Frogeye leaf spot Cercospora sojina K. Hara Fusarium root rot Fusarium spp. Leptosphaerulina leaf spot Leptosphaerulina trifolii (Rostr.) Petr. Mycoleptodiscus root rot Mycoleptodiscus terrestris (Gerdemann) Ostazeski Neocosmospora stem rot Neocosmospora vasinifecta E. F. Sm. Acremonium sp. [anamorph] Phomopsis seed decay Phomopsis spp. Phytophthora root and stem rot Phytophthora sojae Kaufmann & Gerdemann Phyllosticta leaf spot Phyllosticta sojicola C. Massal Phymatotrichum root rot = cotton root rot Phymatotrichopsis omnivora (Duggar) Hennebert = Phymatotrichum omnivorum Duggar Pod and stem blight Diaporthe phaseolorum (Cke. & Ell.) Sacc. var. sojae (Lehman) Wehm. Phomopsis sojae Lehman [anamorph] Powdery mildew Microsphaera diffusa Cooke & Peck Purple seed stain Cercospora kikuchii (Mastsumoto & Tomoyasu) M. W. Gardner Pyrenochaeta leaf spot* Pyrenochaeta glycines Stewart Pythium rot Pythium aphanidermatum (Edison) Fitzp. P. debaryanum Auct. non R. Hesse P. irregulare Buisman P. myriotylum Drechs. P. ultimum Trow Red crown rot Cylindrocladium crotalariae (C. A. Loos) D. K. Bell & Sobers Calonectria crotalariae (C. A. Loos) D. K. Bell & Sobers [teleomorph] Red leaf blotch = Dactuliophora leaf spot* Dactuliochaeta glycines (R. B. Stewart) Hartman & Sinclair = Pyrenochaeta glycines (R. B. Stewart) Dactuliophora glycines Leaky [synanamorph] Rhizoctonia aerial blight Rhizoctonia solani Kühn Thanatephorus cucumeris (A. B. Frank) Donk [teleomorph] Rhizoctonia root and stem rot Rhizoctonia solani Kühn Rust* Phakopsora pachyrhizi Syd. Scab* Spaceloma glycines Kurata & Kuribayashi Sclerotinia stem rot Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) deBary Southern blight (damping-off and stem rot) = Sclerotium blight Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. Athelia rolfsii (Curzi) Tu & Kimbrough [teleomorph] Stem canker Diaporthe phaseolorum (Cooke & Ellis) Sacc. D. phaseolorum (Cooke & Ellis) Sacc. var. caulivora Athow & Caldwell Phomopsis phaseoli (Desmaz) Sacc [anamorph] Stemphylium leaf blight* Stemphylium botryosum Wallr. Pleospora tarda (E. Simmons) [teleomorph] Sudden death syndrome Fusarium solani (Mart.) Sacc. f. sp. glycines Target spot Corynespora cassiicola (Berk. & M. A. Curtis) C. T. Wei Tobacco Anthracnose (Nicotiana Colletotrichum destructivum O'Gara tabacum L.) (teleomorph: Glomerella glycines F. Lehm. and F. A. Wolf) Barn spot Cercospora nicotianae Ellis & Everh. Barn rot Several fungi and bacteria Black root rot Thielaviopsis basicola (Berk. & Broome) Ferraris Black shank Phytophthora parasitica Dastur var. nicotianae (Breda de Haan) Tucker P. nicotianae Breda de Haan var. nicotianae G. M. Waterhouse Blue mold (downy mildew) Peronospora tabacina D. B. Adam = P. hyoscyami de Bary f. sp. tabacina Brown spot Alternaria alternata (Fr.:Fr.) Keissl. Charcoal rot Macrophomina phaseolina (Tassi) Goidanich Collar rot Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) de Bary Damping-off, Pythium Pythium spp. P. aphanidermatum (Edson) Fitzp. P. ultimum Trow Frogeye leaf spot Cercospora nicotianae Ellis & Everh. Fusarium wilt Fusarium oxysporum Schlechtend.:Fr. (several f. sp.) Gray mold Botrytis cinerea Pers.:Fr. (teleomorph: Botryotinia fuckeliana (de Bary) Whetzel) Olpidium seedling blight Olpidium brassicae (Woronin) P. A. Dang. Phyllosticta leaf spot Phyllosticta nicotiana Ellis & Everh. Powdery mildew Erysiphe cichoracearum DC. Ragged leaf spot Phoma exigua Desmaz. var. exigua = Ascochyta phaseolorum Sacc. Scab Hymenula affinis (Fautrey & Lambotte) Wollenweb. = Fusarium affine Fautrey & Lambotte Sore shin and damping-off Rhizoctonia solani Kühn (teleomorph: Thanatephorus cucumeris (A. B. Frank) Donk) Southern stem rot (southern blight) Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. (teleomorph: Athelia rolfsii (Cursi) Tu & Kimbrough) Stem rot of tranplants Pythium spp. Target spot Rhizoctonia solani Kühn Verticillium wilt Verticllium albo-atrum Reinke & Berthier V. dahliae Kleb. Wheat Alternaria leaf blight (Triticum spp. L.) Alternaria triticina Prasada & Prabhu Anthracnose Colletotrichum graminicola (Ces.) G. W. Wils. Glomerella graminicola Politis [teleomorph] Ascochyta leaf spot Ascochyta tritici S. Hori & Enjoji Aureobasidium decay Microdochium bolleyi (R. Sprague) DeHoog & Hermanides-Nijhof = Aureobasidium bolleyi (R. Sprague) Arx Black head molds = sooty molds Alternaria spp. Cladosporium spp. Epicoccum spp. Sporobolomyces spp. Stemphylium spp. and other genera Black point = kernel smudge associated with various fungi and physiological circumstances Cephalosporium stripe Hymenula cerealis Ellis & Everh. = Cephalosporium gramineum Nisikado & Ikata in Nisikado et al Common bunt = stinking smut T. tritici (Bjerk.) G. Wint. in Rabenh. = Tilletia caries (DC.) Tul. & C. Tul. T. laevis Kühn in Rabenh. = T. foetida (Wallr.) Liro Common root rot Bipolaris sorokiniana (Sacc.) Shoemaker Cochliobolus sativus (Ito & Kuribayashi) Drechs. Ex Dast. [teleomorph] Cottony snow mold Coprinus psychromorbidus Redhead & Traquair Crown rot = foot rot, seedling blight, dryland root rot Fusarium spp. F. pseudograminearum O'Donnell et. T. Aoki sp. nov. Gibberella zeae (Schwein.) Petch F. graminearum Schwabe, Group II [anamorph] G. avenacea R. J. Cook F. avenaceum (Fr.:Fr.) Sacc. [anamorph] F. culmorum (W. G. Smith) Sacc. Dilophospora leaf spot = twist Dilophospora alopecuri (Fr.)Fr. Downy mildew = crazy top Sclerophthora macrospora (Sacc.)Thirumalachar et al. Dwarf bunt Tilletia controversa Kühn in Rabenh Ergot Claviceps purpurea (Fr.:Fr.) Tul. Sphacelia segetum Lév. [anamorph] Eyespot = foot rot, strawbreaker Tapesia yallundae Wallwork & Spooner Ramulispora herpotrichoides (From) Arx [anamorph] = Pseudocercosporella herpotrichoides (Fron) Deighton T. acuformis (Boerema, Pieters & Hamers) Crous Ramulispora acuformis (Nirenberg) Crous [anamorph] = Pseudocercosporella herpotrichoides var. acuformis Nirenberg False eyespot Gibellina cerealis Pass. Flag smut Urocystis agropyri (G. Preuss) Schrot. Foot rot = dryland foot rot Fusarium spp. Halo spot Pseudoseptoria donacis (Pass.) Sutton = Selenophoma donacis (Pass.) R. Sprague & A. G. Johnson Karnal bunt = partial bunt Tilletia indica Mitra = Neovossia indica (M. Mitra) Mundk. Leaf rust = brown rust Puccinia triticina Eriks. = P. recondita Roberge ex Desmaz. f. sp. tritici (Eriks. & E. Henn.) D. M. Henderson P. tritici-duri Viennot-Bourgin Leptosphaeria leaf spot Phaeosphaeria herpotrichoides (De Not.) L. Holm = Leptosphaeria herpotrichoides De Not. Stagonospora sp. [anamorph] Loose smut Ustilago tritici (Pers.) Rostr. = U. segetum tritici, U. segetum nuda, U. segetum avena Microscopica leaf spot Phaeosphaeria microscopica (P. Karst.) O. Eriksson = Leptosphaeria microscopica P. Karst Phoma spot Phoma spp. P. glomerata (Corda) Wollenweb. & Hochapfel P. sorghina (Sacc.) Boerema et al. = P. insidiosa Tassi Pink snow mold = Fusarium patch Microdochium nivale (Fr.) Samuels & I. C. Hallett = Fusarium nivale Ces. ex Berl. & Voglino Monographella nivalis (Schaffnit) E. Müller [teleomorph] Platyspora leaf spot Clathrospora pentamera (P. Karst.) Berl. = Platyspora pentamera (P. Karst.) Wehmeyer Powdery mildew Erysiphe graminis DC. f. sp. tritici Em. Marchal Blumeria graminis (DC.) E. O. Speer = E. graminis DC. Oidium monilioides (Nees) Link [anamorph] Pythium root rot Pythium aphanidermatum (Edison) Fitzp. P. arrhenomanes Drechs. P. graminicola Subramanian P. myriotylum Drechs P. volutum Vanterpool & Truscot Rhizoctonia root rot Rhizoctonia solani Kühn Thanatephorus cucumeris (A. B. Frank) Donk [teleomorph] Ring spot = Wirrega blotch Pyrenophora semeniperda (Brittlebank & Adam) Schoemaker = Drechslera campanulata (Lev.) Sutton D. wirreganesis Wallbork, Lichon & Sivanesan Scab = head blight Fusarium spp. Gibberella zeae (Schwein.) Petch Fusarium graminearum Schwabe, Group II [anamorph] G. avenacea R. J. Cook F. avenaceum (Fr.:Fr.) Sacc. [anamorph] F. culmorum (Wm. G. Sm.) Sacc. Microdochium nivale (Fr.) Samuels & I. C. Hallett = F. nivale Ces ex Berl. & Voglino Monographella nivale (Schaffnit) E. Müller [teleomorph] Sclerotinia snow mold = snow scald Myriosclerotinia borealis (Bubák & Vleugel) L. M. Kohn = Sclerotinia borealis Bubák & Vleugel Sclerotium wilt (see Southern blight) Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. Athelia rolfsii (Curzi) Tu & Kimbrough [teleomorph] Septoria blotch Septoria tritici Roberge in Desmaz. Mycosphaerella graminicola (Fuckel) J. Schröt. In Cohn [teleomorph] Sharp eyespot Rhizoctonia cerealis Van der Hoeven Ceratobasidium cereale D. Murray & L. L. Burpee [teleomorph] Snow rot Pythium spp. P. aristosporum Vanterpool P. iwayamai Ito P. okanoganense Lipps Southern blight = Sclerotium base rot Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. Athelia rolfsii (Curzi) Tu & Kimbrough [teleomorph] Speckled snow mold = gray snow mold or Typhula blight Typhula idahoensis Remsberg T. incarnata Fr. T. ishikariensis Imai T. ishikariensis Imai var. canadensis Smith & Arsvoll Spot blotch Bipolaris sorokiniana (Sacc.)Shoemaker Stagonospora blotch Phaeosphaeria avenaria (G. F. Weber) O. Eriksson f. sp. triticea T. Johnson Stagonospora avenae (A. B. Frank) Bissett f. sp. tritica T. Johnson [anamorph] = Septoria avenae A. B. Frank f. sp. triticea T. Johnson Phaeosphaeria nodorum (E. Müller) Hedjaroude Stagonospora nodorum (Berk.) Castellani & E. G. Germano [anamorph] = Septoria nodorum (Berk.) Berk. in Berk. & Broome Stem rust = black rust Puccinia graminis Pers.:Pers. = P. graminis Pers.:Pers. f. sp. tritici Eriks. & E. Henn. Storage molds Aspergillus spp. Penicillium spp. and others Stripe rust = yellow rust Puccinia striiformis Westend. Uredo glumarum J. C. Schmidt [anamorph] Take-all Gaeumannomyces graminis (Sacc.) Arx & D. Olivier var. tritici J. Walker G. graminis (Sacc.) Arx & D. Olivier var. avenae (E. M. Turner) Dennis Tan spot = yellow leaf spot, red smudge Pyrenophora tritici-repentis (Died.) Drechs. Drechslera tritici-repentis (Died.) Shoemaker [anamorph] Tar spot Phyllachora graminis (Pers.:Fr.) Nitschke Linochora graminis (Grove) D. G. Parbery [anamorph] Zoosporic root rot Lagena radicicola Vant & Ledingham Ligniera pilorum Fron & Gaillat Olpidium brassicae (Woronin) Dang. Rhizophydium graminis Ledingham Cultivated Wild Anthracnose Rice Colletotrichum sublineolum (Zizania palustris L.) Ergot Claviceps zizaniae Fungal brown spot Bipolaris oryzae Phytophthora crown and root rot Phytophthora erythroseptica Scab Fusarium spp. Spot blotch Bipolaris sorokiniana Stem rot Sclerotium hydrophilum Sclerotium oryzae Stem smut Entyloma lineatum Zonate eye spot Drechslera gigantea

Various publications and sequences are cited herein, which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties. 

1. A method of producing a plant resistant to a phytopathogenic fungus, comprising the following steps: a) introducing into a plant cell a construct comprising: a promoter regulatory sequence that is functional in the plant cell, operably linked to a DNA sequence which, when it is transcribed, generates an RNA molecule comprising at least a sense sequence and an antisense sequence which are at least partially complementary, said sense sequence comprising a sequence essentially homologous to a gene essential to the fungus or to its phytopathogenicity, said antisense sequence comprising a sequence essentially homologous to the sequence complementary to said essential gene, and a terminator regulatory sequence, resulting in a transformed plant cell; b) placing the transformed cell in culture under conditions that allow the transcription of the construct, and c) selecting the transformed cell.
 2. The method of claim 1, comprising the further step of regenerating a plant from the transformed cell.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the selection step in performed before the transformed cell is placed in culture under conditions that allow the transcription of the construct.
 4. The method of claim 1 wherein the sense and antisense nucleotide sequences are separated by a polynucleotide that does not exhibit any homology with the fungal gene.
 5. The method of claim 1 wherein the sense and antisense nucleotide sequences have different sizes.
 6. The method of claim 1 wherein the fungal gene is a gene essential to the fungus.
 7. The method of claim 6, wherein the fungal gene is chosen from the group consisting of erg11, erg6, aur1, ipt, ef2, ef3, met4, met30, ilv5, and the gene encoding beta-tubulin.
 8. The method of claim 7, wherein the fungal gene is the gene encoding beta-tubulin.
 9. The method of claim 8, wherein the DNA sequence is represented by the sequence identifier SEQ ID No.
 4. 10. The method of claim 9, wherein the plant is tobacco and the phytopathogenic fungus is Cercospora nicotianae.
 11. The method of claim 1, wherein the fungal gene is a gene essential to the pathogenicity of the fungus.
 12. The method of claim 11, wherein the fungal gene is chosen from the group consisting of tri5, fum5, 763, the gene encoding polygalacturonase, and buf.
 13. The method of claim 12, wherein the fungal gene is the buf gene.
 14. The method of claim 13, wherein the DNA sequence is represented by the sequence identifier SEQ ID No.
 13. 15. The method of claim 14, wherein the plant is rice and the phytopathogenic fungus is Magnaporthe grisea.
 16. A plant cell resistant to a phytopathogenic fungus, comprising a construct comprising a promoter regulatory sequence that is functional in the plant, operably linked to a DNA sequence which, when it is transcribed, generates an RNA molecule comprising at least a sense sequence and an antisense sequene which are at least partially complementary, said sense sequence comprising a sequence essentially homologous to a gene essential to the fungus or to its phytopathogenicity, said antisense sequence comprising a sequence essentially homologous to the sequence complementary to said essential gene, and a terminator regulatory sequence.
 17. The plant cell of claim 16, which is contained in a plant which is resistant to a phytopathogenic fungus.
 18. The plant cell of claim 16, wherein the sense and antisense nucleotide sequences are separated by a polynucleotide that does not exhibit any homology with the target gene.
 19. The plant cell of claim 16, wherein the sense and antisense nucleotide sequences have different sizes.
 20. The plant cell of claim 16, wherein the fungal gene is a gene essential to the fungus.
 21. The plant cell of claim 16, wherein the fungal gene is chosen from the group consisting of erg11, erg6, aur1, ipt, ef3, ef2, met4, met30, ilv5, and the gene encoding beta-tubulin.
 22. The plant cell of claim 16, wherein the fungal gene is the gene encoding beta-tubulin.
 23. The plant cell of claim 16, wherein the DNA sequence is represented by the sequence identifier SEQ ID No.
 4. 24. The plant cell of claim 16, wherein the fungal gene is a gene essential to the pathogenicity of the fungus.
 25. The plant cell of claim 16, wherein the fungal gene is chosen from the group consisting of tri5, fum5, 763, the gene encoding polygalacturonase, and buf.
 26. The plant cell of claim 25, wherein the fungal gene is the buf gene.
 27. The plant cell of claim 26, wherein the DNA sequence is represented by the sequence identifier SEQ ID No.
 13. 28. The plant of claim 17, which is a monocotyledon.
 29. The plant of claim 28, which is selected from the group consisting of wheat, maize and rice.
 30. The plant of claim 29, which is a rice plant resistant to Magnaporthe grisea, wherein the DNA sequence is represented by the sequence identifier SEQ ID No.
 13. 31. The plant of claim 17, which is a dicotyledon.
 32. The plant of claim 31, which is selected from the group consisting of rapeseed, soybean, tobacco and cotton.
 33. The plant of claim 32 which is a tobacco plant resistant to Cercospora nicotianae, wherein the DNA sequence is represented by the sequence identifier SEQ ID No.
 4. 34. A method for identifying a gene essential to the development or to the pathogenicity of a phytopathogenic fungus, comprising the following steps: a) transforming a plant cell or a plant with a construct comprising: a promoter regulatory sequence that is functional in the plant cell or plant, operably linked to a DNA sequence which, when it is transcribed, generates an RNA molecule comprising at least a sense sequence and an antisense sequence which are at least partially complementary, said sense sequence comprising a sequence essentially homologous to a gene essential to the fungus or to its phytopathogenicity, said antisense sequence comprising a sequence essentially homologous to the sequence complementary to said essential gene, and a terminator regulatory sequence, b) bringing the cells or the plants thus transformed into contact with the phytopathogenic fungus, c) studying the resulting phenotype, and d) characterizing the gene corresponding to the sequence of nucleotides thus inserted.
 35. A method for inhibiting the expression of a fungal gene, comprising the following steps: a) transforming a plant cell with a construct comprising: a promoter regulatory sequence that is functional in the plant cell, operably linked to a DNA sequence which, when it is transcribed, generates an RNA molecule comprising at least a sense sequence and an antisense sequence which are at least partially complementary, said sense sequence comprising a sequence essentially homologous to a gene essential to the fungus or to its phytopathogenicity, said antisense sequence comprising a sequence essentially homologous to the sequence complementary to said essential gene, a terminator regulatory sequence, b) placing the cell thus transformed in culture under conditions that allow the transcription of said construct, and c) allowing the plant cell to contact the fungus.
 36. The method of claim 35, comprising an additional step of regenerating the transformed cell to form a plant. 